Spreckels 


THE  THEORY  OF  ADVERTISING 


THE  .THEORY 
OF   ADVERTISING, 

A  Simple  Exposition  of 
The  Principles  of   Psychology 

In   Their  Relation  to 
Successful   Advertising 

By   WALTER    DILL   SCOTT,  Ph.D. 

Director  of  the  Psychological  Laboratory  of  Northwestern  University 


Boston 

Small,  Maynard  Gf  Company 
1904 


'R  A  R 
THE 


UN1VWSITY 


Copyright  1902-1903  by 

Walter  Dill  Scott 
All  Rights  Reserved 


Published  October,  JOOJ 


Plates  by  The  Fort  Hill  Press 

Presswork  by  Geo,  H.  Ellis  Co. 

Boston,  U.S.A. 


THIS    BOOK   IS   DEDICATED   TO 

THOMAS    BALMER 

IN    RECOGNITION    OF    THE    SERVICES    HE    HAS    RENDERED 
IN    ELEVATING    THE   ETHICAL    STANDARDS 

OF   THE    ADVERTISING    WORLD 

AND   IN    ASSISTING    TO   PLACE    ADVERTISING 

UPON    A   SCIENTIFIC   BASIS 


1 23351 


PREFACE 

NEARLY  all  of  the  chapters  included  in  this 
volume  were  first  published  serially  in  Mahiris 
Magazine,  under  the  title  of  "  The  Psychology 
of  Advertising."  The  thanks  of  the  author  and 
of  the  publishers  are  due  to  the  publishers  of 
that  magazine  for  permission  to  reprint  these 
articles  in  book  form,  as  well  as  for  the  use  of 
many  of  the  illustrations  which  appear  herein. 

An  acknowledgment  of  courtesy  is  also  due  to 
the  Agate  Club  of  Chicago,  which  has  generously 
transferred  to  the  author  the  copyright  of  an 
address  originally  delivered  before  their  members, 
which,  in  modified  form,  appears  as  Chapter  II 
of  this  book. 

All  of  the  reprinted  chapters  have  been  re- 
vised to  adapt  them  to  their  present  use,  addi- 
tional matter  has  been  added  to  many  of  them, 
and  new  introductory  and  concluding  chapters 
have  been  written. 


VII 


CONTENTS 


PAGE 


I.     The  Theory  of^dvertising i 

"II.     Attention  4  :P<! 6 

III.  Association  of  Ideas  . 34 

IV.  '  Suggestion*  'iXf 47 

V.     The  Direct  Command    ' 62 

-ATI.  CJhe  Psychological  Value  of  the  Return  Coupo"rT)  79 

^VII.     Fusion 96 

VIII.  •vf'sychologicai  Experiment^.     .......  116 

IX.   ,  Perception 130 

X.    .Apperception 147 

XI.     Illusions  of  Perception^ 162 

XII.     'Illusions  of  Apperception -, 175 

XIII.  Personal  Differences  in  Mental  Imagery    .     .     .  194 

XIV.    'Practical  Application  of  Mental  Imagery  .     .     .  208 

XV.     Conclusion 229 


LIST    OF     ILLUSTRATIONS 

Burlington  Route .      1 1 

Dr   Slocum's  Remedies 13 

Ralston  Purina  Cereals 20 

Murphy  Varnish  Co ,    .    .      21 

White  Star  Coffee      22 

American  Pencil  Co 23 

The  Press  Co 26 

Franklin  Mills  Co. — Wheatlet 27,77 

Franklin  Mills  Flour      28 

PrudenJ  ial  Insurance  Co 31 

Advertising  Schools        70 

Return  Coupons 80,  81,  83,  84,  89 

Ballot  Form  of  Return  Coupon 93 

Dr.  Sleight's  Fat  Reducing  Tablets 106 

Insexdie 108 

Swan  Fountain  Pen 109 

Petoskey  Rug  Mfg.  and  Carpet  Co.,  Ltd no 

Wm.  M.  Walton's  Cigars in 

Racycle 112 

Great  Western  Cereal  Co 113 

Quaker  Oats 114 

Railroad  Time-tables 120,  121 

Flame  Proof  Co.  —  F.  P.  C.  Wax 143,   145 

Whitman's  Chocolates 156,   158 

Illusions  of  Length        163,  165,   167,   168 

Illusions  of  Size 166,   170,   171 

Illusions  of  Direction 169 

Munsing  and  Oneita  Underwear 176 

Portable  Houses  and  Fountain  Pens 179 

Human  Brain 181 

Rabbit-duck  Head 182 

Ambiguous  Figures        183,   184,   185,   186,   187 

Irrelevant  Piano  Advertisements 212,  213 

Blasius  Piano      214 

Packard  Piano 215 

xi 


LIST     OF     ILLUSTRATIONS 

Irrelevant  Food  Advertisements 217,  218 

National  Biscuit  Co.  —  Nabisco 219 

Crawford  Shoe 221 

Crossett  Shoe 222 

Omega  Oil 224,  225,  227 


Xll 


T\ B 

OF 


UNIVERSITY 
or          < 

T 

THE  THEORY  OF  ADVERTISING 

SOME  good  "doctoring"  was  done  when  men 
"picked  up  "  their  knowledge  of  medicine  from 
their  practice.  To-day  the  state  laws  require 
that  every  physician  shall  have  a  basis  of  theory 
for  his  practical  knowledge.  He  must  know 
the  exact  chemical  constituents 

of  the  drugs  used.     He  must  know 

Demanded  , 

the  anatomy  and  the  physiology  of 

the  human  organism.  He  must  be  a  theoretical 
man  before  he  can  be  a  practical  one.  If  the 
laws  did  not  prohibit  it,  he  might  pick  up  a  good 
deal  in  actual  experience  and  might  do  a  good 
deal  of  excellent  work.  The  state  laws,  however, 
will  not  allow  us  to  run  chances  with  such  people. 

We  would  not  call  upon  an  architect  to  con- 
struct a  modern  office  building  unless  he  knew 
something  of  the  theory  of  architecture.  We 
would  not  call  upon  a  lawyer  to  defend  us  be- 
fore the  courts  unless  he  knew  something  of  the 
theory  of  law.  Some  states  and  cities  require 
teachers  to  pass  examinations  on  the  theory  of 
teaching  before  they  are  allowed  to  give  instruc- 
tion. 

In  this  day  and  generation  we  are  not  afraid 
of  theories,  systems,  ideals,  and  imagination. 
What  we  do  avoid  is  chance,  luck,  haphazard 

i 


THE    THEORY    OF    ADVERTISING 

undertakings,  parrot  or  rule -of -thumbs  action, 
and  the  like.  We  may  be  willing  to  decide  on 
unimportant  things  by  instinct  or  by  the  flipping 
of  a  coin,  but  when  it  comes  to  the  serious  things 
of  life  we  want  to  know  that  we  are  trusting  to 
something  more  than  mere  chance. 

Advertising  is  a  serious  thing  with  the  business 
[man  of  to-day.     It  is  estimated  that  the  business 
(men  of  the  United  States  are  spending  $600,000,- 
r,  ooo  a  year  in  printed  forms  of  advertising.     Fur- 
thermore one  authority  claims  that  seventy-five 
(jper  cent,  of  all  this  is  unprofitable.     Every  busi- 
ness man  is  anxious  that  no  part  of  these  unpro- 
fitable advertisements  shall  fall  to  his  lot.     The 
)  enormity  of  the  expense,  the  keenness  of  compe- 
tition,   and    the    great    liability    of    failure    has 
awakened  the  advertising  world  to  the  pressing 
need  for  some  basis  of  assurance  in  its  hazardous 
undertakings. 

I  have  attempted  to  read  broadly  on  the  sub- 
ject of  advertising;  I  have  tried  to  talk  with  busi- 
ness men  —  manufacturers,  salesmen,  publishers, 
professional  advertisers,  etc.,  and    in  all  that  I 
have  read,  and  in  all  these  conversations,  I  have 
never  seen  or  heard  any  reference 
syc  o>  ogy     ^Q    anything     except     psychology 

which  could  furnish  a  stable 
Suggested 

foundation  for  a  theory  of  adver- 
tising. Nothing  else  is  ever  suggested  as  a  possi- 
bility. Ordinarily  the  business  man  does  not 


THE    THEORY    OF    ADVERTISING' 

realize  that  he  means  psychology  when  he  says 
that  he  "must  know  his  customers'  wants  —  what 
will  catch  their  attention,  what  will  impress  them 
and  lead  them  to  buy,"  etc.  In  all  these  expres- 
sions he  is  saying  that  he  must  be  a  psychologist. 
He  is  talking  about  the  minds  of  his  customers, 
and  psychology  is  nothing  but  a  stubborn  and 
systematic  attempt  to  understand  and  explain 
the  workings  of  the  minds  of  these  very  people. 
In  Printers'  Ink  for  October,  1895,  appeared  the 
following  editorial: 

Probably  when  we  are  a  little  more  enlightened,  the 
advertising  writer,  like  the  teacher,  will  study  psychology. 
For,  however  diverse  their  occupation  may  at  first  sight 
appear,  the  advertising  writer  and  the  teacher  have  one 
great  object  in  common  —  to  influence  the  human  mind. 
The  teacher  has  a  scientific  foundation  for  his  work  in 
that  direction,  but  the  advertising  writer  is  really  also 
a  psychologist.  Human  nature  is  a  great  factor  in 
advertising  success,  and  he  who  writes  advertisements 
without  reference  to  it  is  apt  to  find  that  he  has 
reckoned  without  his  host. 

In  Publicity,  March,  1901,  appeared  an  article 
which  is  even  more  suggestive  than  the  editorial 
in  Printers'  Ink.  The  following  is  a  quotation 
from  that  article: 

The  time  is  not  far  away  when  the  advertising- 
writer  will  find  out  the  inestimable  benefits  of  a  knowl- 
edge of  psychology.  The  preparation  of  copy  has 
usually  followed  the  instincts  rather  than  the  analyt- 

3 


THE     THEORY    OF    ADVERTISING 

ical  functions.  An  advertisement  has  been  written  to 
describe  the  articles  which  it  was  wished  to  place  before 
the  reader;  a  bit  of  cleverness,  an  attractive  cut,  or 
some  other  catchy  device  has  been  used,  with  the  hope 
that  the  hit  or  miss  ratio  could  be  made  as  favorable 
as  possible. 

But  the  future  must  needs  be  full  of  better  methods 
than  these  to  make  advertising  advance  with  the  same 
rapidity  as  it  has  during  the  latter  part  of  the  last 
century.  And  this  will  come  through  a  closer  knowl- 
edge of  the  psychological  composition  of  the  mind. 
The  so-called  "students  of  human  nature"  will  then 
be  called  successful  psychologists,  and  the  successful 
advertisers  will  be  likewise  termed  psychological  adver- 
tisers. 

The  mere  mention    of    psychological   terms — habit, 
self,    conception,    discrimination,    association,  memory, ' 
imagination  and  perception,   reason,  emotion,   instind 
and  will  —  should  create  a  flood  of  new  thought  thai 
should  appeal  to  every  advanced  consumer  of  advertis 
ing  space. 

These  writers  merely  voiced  the  sentiment  of 
the  leaders  in  the  advertising  world,  and  are  but 
two  of  many  similar  quotations  which  might  be 
given.  The  application  of  the  principles  and 
methods  of  psychology  to  advertising  was  a  need 
which  was  felt  by  all  and  expressed  by  many. 

No  science  is  regarded  as  complete.  The  last 
word  has  not  yet  been  said  in  any  realm  of  human 
knowledge.  During  the  thousands  of  years  since 
the  dawn  of  civilization  there  has  been  a  gradual 
accumulation  of  knowledge,  but  during  the  last 

4 


THE     THEORY    OF    ADVERTISING 

few  decades  the  advance  in  the  sciences  has  been 
phenomenal.  Psychology  is  no  exception  to  this 
general  statement.  Since  the  establishment  of  the 
first  psychological  laboratory  in  1879  the  advance 
in  psychology  has  been  very  rapid.  To-day  certain 
general  principles  of  mind  and  certain  methods 
of  investigating  the  mind  are  well  established. 
It  behooves  the  advertiser  to  take  advantage 
of  this  scientific  knowledge,  for  it  has  practical 
significance  for  him.  The  following  chapters  are 
an  attempt  to  present  the  principles  and  the 
methods  which  the  modern  psychologists  have 
worked  out  and  formulated.  At  the  same  time 
an  attempt  has  been  made  to  show  how  these 
principles  and  methods  can  be  practically  applied 
by  the  advertiser. 


6 
II 

ATTENTION 


WHAT  does  the  advertiser  seek  to  accomplish 
by  his  advertisements  ?     The  answers  to  this  ques- 
tion differ  merely  as  to  form  of  expression  or  point 
of  view.     One  says:  "The  aim  of  advertising  is 
to  attract  attention  and  to  sell  goods."     Another 
statement  would  be  that  the  purpose  of  advertis- 
ing is  to  attract  attention  to  the 
goods  and  to  create  such  a  favor- 
Advertisers     a^e  imPressi°n  f°r  them  that  the 
reader  will  desire  to  possess  them. 
Whatever  the  statement  may  be,  this  seems  cer- 
7  tain  —  one  _aim.^o_f  every  advertisement  is   to  at- 
I  tract  attention.     Therefore,  the  entire  problem  of 
attortion  is^bne  of  importance  to  the  advertiser, 
|  and  an  understanding  of  it  is  necessary  for  its 
wisest  application  as  well  as  for  a  correct  under- 
standing of  advertising. 

When  we  turn  to  the  question  of  attention,  the 
first  thing  that  impresses  us  is  that  our  attention 
is  narrow,  that  we  are  unable  to  attend  to  many 
things  at  once.  Out  of  all  the  multitude  of  things 
competing  for  place  in  our  attention,  the  great 
majority  is  entirely  disregarded.  At  the  present 
time  you  are  receiving  impressions  of  pressure 
from  your  chair  and  from  your  clothing,  impres- 
sions of  smell  from  flowers  and  from  smoke, 

6 


ATTENTION 


impressions  of  sound  from  passing  vehicles  and 
from  your  own  breathing,  impressions  of  sight 
from  your  hand  that  holds  this  book  and  from 
the  table  on  which  the  book  rests.  As  I  men- 
tion them  they  are  noticed  one  after  the  other. 
Before  I  mentioned  them  you  were  totally 
oblivious  of  them.  You  cannot  say  how  many 
distinct  things  you  can  attend  to  at  once.  This 
was  formerly  a  question  of  frequent 
*"  debate.  Some  asserted  that  we 

„,.  '  could  attend  to  but  one  thing  at 

Time 

a  time,  but  others,  with  equal 
vehemence,  insisted  that  a  score  of  things 
could  be  attended  to  at  once.  The  question 
has  been  removed  from  the  realm  of  mere  prob- 
ability, for  it  has  been  investigated  according 
to  scientific  methods  in  the  psychological  lab- 
oratories, and  definite  results  have  been  ob- 
tained. Ordinary  observers  under favorable 

conditions  can  attend  to  about  four  visual 
objects  at  once.  "Object"  here  is  used  to  in- 
dicate anything  that  may  be  regarded  as  a 
single  thing.  About  four  letters,  four  simple 
pictures,  four  geometrical  figures  or  easy  words 
are  as  much  as  we  can  see  or  attend  to  at 
once. 

As  you  look  at  this  page  the  light  is  reflected  to 
your  eyes  from  each  individual  word,  so  one  might 
say  that  you  receive  an  impression  from  each  of 
the  words  on  the  page,  but  if  you  look  at  the  page 

7 


THE     THEORY    OF    ADVERTISING 

closely  you  will  find  that  you  can  attend  to  but 
about  four  words  at  once. 

If,  then,  there  are  multitudes  of  things  to  be 
attended  to  and  we  are  unable  to  attend  to  more 
than  four  at  once,  why^  do  we  attend_tp  certain 
things  and  disregard  all  the  rest?  What  charac- 
teristics must  anything  have  that  it  may  force 
itself  into  our  attention?  Since  advertisements 
are  part  of  the  things  which  may  or  may  not  be 
attended  to,  we  may  be  more  specific  and  put  the 
question  in  this  form:  What  must 

be  the  characteristics  of  an  adver- 
Ouestion          .  r 

04.  ».  A         tisement  to  force  it  into  the  atten- 
Stated 

tion  of  the  possible  customer? 

If  I  am  interested  in  guns,  take  up  a  magazine, 
look  for  the  advertisements  of  guns  and  read  them 
through,  my  attention  is  voj.uj[rtary.  If,  while 
looking  for  guns,  something  else  catches  my  eye 
for  a  moment  and  I  think  ' '  that  is  an  adver- 
tisement for  clothing,"  then  my  attention  is 
involuntary.  In  the  first  case  I  sought  out  the 
advertisement  with  a  conscious  purpose.  In 
the  second  there  was  no  such  conscious  purpose, 
but  the  advertisement  thrust  itself  upon  my 
attention. 

Psychology  is  the  newest  of  the  experimental 
sciences  and  the  investigations  of  involuntary 
attention  are  as  yet  far  from  satisfactory.  The 
complete  analysis  of  it  as  applied  to  advertising 
has  to  my  knowledge  never  been  made.  With 

8 


ATTENTION 


its  complete  analysis  the  following  six  principles 
will  appear: 

The  first  principle  is_ihatJh^£Qwe.r.Qtqnyj)bject 
to  force  itself  into  our  attention  depends  on  the 
'absence  of  counter  attractions. 

Other  things  being  equal,  the  probabilities  that 
any  particular  thing  will  catch  our  attention  are 
in  proportion  to  the  absence  of  competing  attrac- 
tions. This  may  be  demonstrated  in  a  specific 
case  as  follows :  I  had  a  card  of  con- 
venient size  and  on  it  were  four 

Experiment  liters.  This  car(^  was  exposed  to 
view  for  one  twenty-fifth  of  a  sec- 
ond, and  in  that  time  all  the  four  letters  were  read 
by  the  observers.  I  then  added  four  other  letters 
and  exposed  the  card  one  twenty-fifth  of  a  sec- 
ond as  before.  The  observers  could  read  but  four 
letters  as  in  the  previous  trial,  but  in  this  exposure 
there  was  no  certainty  that  any  particular  letter 
would  be  read.  I  then  added  four  more  letters  to 
the  card  and  exposed  it  as  in  the  previous  trials. 
The  observers  were  still  able  to  read  but  four  let- 
ters. That  is  to  say,  up  to"  a  certain  point  all  could 
be  seen  ;  when  the  number  of  objects  (i.  e.,  let- 
ters) was  doubled,  the  chances  that  any  particular 
object  would  be  seen  were  reduced  to  fifty  per 
cent.  When  the  number  of  objects  was  increased 
threefold,  the  chance  of  any  particular  object 
being  seen  was  reduced  to  thirty-three  per  cent. 
If  I  should  place  any  four  particular  letters  on 

9 


THE    THEORY    OF    ADVERTISING 

the  right-hand  page  of  any  magazine,  and  also 
the  same  four  letters  on  the  opposite  page, 
and  have  nothing  else  on  these  pages,  it  is  safe 
to  say  that  the  letters  would  be  seen,  with  more 
or  less  attention,  in  one  or  both  cases  by  every 
one  who  turns  over  the  pages  of  the  magazine. 
This  follows,  because  at  the  ordinary  reading 
distance  the  field  of  even  comparatively  distinct 
vision  is  smaller  than  a  single  page  of  ordinary 
magazine  size,  and  as  one  turns  the  pages  the 
attention  is  not  wider  than  the  page  and  therefore 
the  letters  have  no  rivals  and  would  of  neces- 
sity fill  or  occupy  the  attention  for  an  instant  of 
time,  or  until  the  page  was  turned  over.  If  one 
hundred  of  these  letters  were  placed  on  each  of 
the  pages,  the  chances  that  any  particular  letter 
would  be  seen  are  greatly  reduced. 

This  seems  to  indicate  that,  other  things  being- 
equal,  the  full-page  advertisement  is  the  "sure-i 
to-be-seen  "  advertisement,  and  that  the  size  of  an 
advertisement  determines  the  number  of  chances 
it  has  of  being  seen. 

This  principle,  which  holds  for  the  parts  of  a 
page,  might  not  hold  for  adjoining  pages.  Thus 
it  might  not  be  to  the  advantage  of  an  advertise- 
ment to  be  the  only  advertisement  or  the  only  one 
of  a  certain  class  of  goods  in  any  periodical.  If 
there  were  eight  advertisements  of  automobiles  on 
a  single  page,  the  casual  reader  would  probably  see 
but  one  or  two  of  them.  If  there  were  eight  full- 

10 


ATTENTION 


page  advertisements  of  automobiles  on  adjoining 
pages  of  the  same  magazine,  even  the  casual  reader 
would  be  likely  to  see  them  all./  Whether  each 


Cool  Off 
in  Colorado 


If  it's  hot  where  yon  are  and  you  want  a  change  of  air, 


if  you  are  tired  and  overworked  and  need  a  little  outing;  go 
to  Colorado.    It  is  the  one  perfect  summer  spot  in  America, 
of  tl 


The  pure,  dry,  invigorating  air,  the  glory  of  the 

scenery,  the  quiet  restfulness  of  the  place,  the  fine  fishing  and 

golf  links,  the  comfortable  hotels  and  boarding  houses,  all  go  to  make 

Colorado  the  ideal  country  for  seekers  after  health  and  pleasure. 


Send  for  our  "Handbook  of  Colorado. 


A  trip  to  Colorado  costs  but  little.  Our  handbook  tells  all  about  the 
prices  for  board  and  the  attractions  at  different  places.  'Send  for  a  copy 
TO-DAY.  No  charge.  At  the  same  time  I  will  mail  you  a  circular  telling 


about  the  very  cheap  tickets  we  are  selling  to  Colorado.    Round  trip  from 
21 


Chicago,  $25  and  $30;  from  St.  Louis,  $21  and  $25,  according  to  the  date, 
t  takes  but  one  night  on  the  road  from  either  Chicago  or  St.  Louis  to  Denver. 


of  these  eight  full-page  advertisements  would  be 
as  effective  as  one  would  be  if  it  were  the  only  one 
in  the  magazine  is  a  question  for  further  consid- 
eration and  will  be  taken  up  at  a  later  time. 

ii 


THE    THEORY    OF    ADVERTISING 

If  on  a  single  page  there  are  but  few  words  set 
in  display  type,  and  if  these  words  stand  out  with 
no  competitors  for  the  attention 
*!  of  the  reader,  the  chances  are  in 

* ,.  ..  favor  of  any  particular  person 

reading  this  much  of  the  advertise- 
ment. Thus,  in  the  advertisement  of  the  Burl- 
ington Railroad  reproduced  herewith  (No.  i), 
the  words  "Cool  off  in  Colorado"  stand  out 
without  having  to  compete  with  any  counter 
attraction.  If  this  idea  causes  the  reader  to 
stop  but  for  a  second  he  will  next  see  the  dis- 
play "Burlington  Route"  and  then  "Send  for 
our  Handbook  of  Colorado."  No  one  of  these 
displays  competes  with  the  other,  but  each  assists 
the  other. 

In  the  advertisement  of  Doctor  Slocum,  as 
reproduced  herewith  (No.  2),  there  is  so  much 
put  in  display  type  and  in  so  many  styles  of  type 
that  nothing  stands  out  clearly  and  distinctly. 
Each  individual  display  seems  to  screech  at  the 
reader  as  he  turns  the  page.  The  result  is  that 
the  ordinary  reader  feels  confused,  and  turns 
away  from  such  a  page  without  any  definite  idea 
as  to  what  it  is  all  about.  Each  display  is  a 
counter  attraction  to  each  other  one,  and  so  the 
effect  of  all  is  weakened. 

The  second  principle  is  that  the  power  of  any 
object  to  attract  our  attention  depends  on  the  intensity 
of  the  sensation  aroused. 

12 


ATTENTION 


The  bright  headlight  of  the  locomotive  and  the 
red  lanterns  which  are  used  as  signals  of  danger 


ARE  YOUR  LUNGS  WEAK? 

You.  Kind  Reader,  Thrt.lened  with  Consumption.  Iry  CKi.  Complete.  phHosophlc.1  •nd  SUCCESSFUL 

HERE-  18  HALTH 


,llta,alim  .ifnmt,  llu  ntt  of  rtr/k  ./  U,  Fnr  Tritl  S*mfJ,i.      Write  far  I 


Digestive 
Tonic 

INVIGORATING. 


The  CONSUMPTIVE  Can  Be  Cured 

.  tr....  «  --   n  -----  .1  ------  ,„•,«.,  ----     k,  --     -        —       ..          -.  ' 


I.»*t»*i>tr'fini!irtrwi^"ic*s*s  h*v*  b**° 


-SLJsrjfsa; "BwnraRBrKa: 

., m «. Jr A  SLOCIJ^. .0..  S SSfhJr.'SS SoTS: 

|cym    pk.s«  jive  eiprr»  .nd   posl- 


I  AND  PRESBYTER. 


* 


Wrili  fir  FOUR  FREE  SAMPLES 


No.  2 

arouse    such    strong    sensations   that  we  simply 
must  see  them. 

Moving  objects  produce  a  stronger  sensation  /</ 1 
than  objects  at  rest.     This  accounts  for  the  intro- ' 

13 


THE    THEORY    OF    ADVERTISING 

duction  of  all  sorts  of  movement  in  street  adver- 

tising. 

Certain    colors    attract    attention    more    than 

others.     Prof.  Harlow  Gale  has  made  some  ex- 

periments to  determine  what  the  attention  value 
of  the  different  colors  is.  He  has 
found  that  red  is  the  color  having 


Colors         ^e  greatest  attention  value,  green 
is  the  second  and  black  the  third. 
Black  on  a  white  background  is  more  effective 
than  white  on  a  black  background. 

Large  and  heavy  types  not  only  occupy  a  large 
amount  of  space  and  so  force  attention  to  them- 
selves by  excluding  counter  attractions,  but,  in 
addition  to  this,  they  affect  the  eye  and  give  a 
strong  sensation  and  thereby  attract  the  atten- 
tion. Experiments  have  been  made  to  find  the 
attention  value  of  the  different-sized  type.  It 
has  been  found  that,  within  the  limits  of  trr 
experiments,  the  attention  value  of  display  type 
increases  in  almost  exact  proportion  to  the 
increase  of  its  size. 

The  eye  is  like  a  photographer's  camera.  If 
it  is  focused  for  any  particular  object,  all  others 
appear  through  it  to  be  blurred  and  indistinct.  If 
I  fix  my  eyes  upon  an  object  directly  in  front  of 
me,  all  others  are  seen  but  dimly.  My  hand,  held 
to  the  extreme  right  or  left,  is  then  seen  so  indis- 
tinctly that  I  cannot  count  the  fingers.  Objects 
that  fall  under  the  direct  gaze  of  the  eyes  make 

14 


ATTENTION 


stronger  visual  impressions  than  those  which  fall 
out  of  the  focus.  The  former  ordinarily  attract 
the  attention,  the  latter  seldom  do.  As  one  turns 
over  the  pages  of  advertisements,  those  which  fall 
directly  within  the  focus  of  the  eye  have  the  best 
chance  of  attracting  the  attention. 

An  important  question  for  the  advertiser  is: 
Where  does  the  ordinary  reader  direct  his  eyes 
as  he  turns  the  pages  of  a  magazine  ?  Does  he 
begin  at  the  front  or  at  the  back  of  the  mag- 
azine ?  Does  he  turn  his  eyes  first  to  the  top 
or  to  the  middle  or  to  the  bottom  of  the  page? 
Are  his  eyes  turned  more  to  the  right  or  more 
to  the  left  of  the  page?  These  questions  have 
been  the  subject  of  frequent  discussion,  but  they 
never  have  been  subjected  to  sufficiently  exten- 
sive investigation. 

The  third  principle  is  that  the  attention  value  of 
\an  object  depends  upon  the  contrast  it  forms  to  the 
object  presented  with  it,  preceding  or  following  it. 

The  contrast  produced  by  a  flash  of  lightning 
on  a  dark  nip-ht,  or  by  the  hooting  of  an  owl 
at  midnight,  is  so  strong  that  the  attention  is 
absolutely  forced,  and  there  is  no  one  who 
can  disregard  them.  Novel  things  and  sudden 
changes  of  any  sort  are  noticed,  while  familiar 
things  and  gradual  changes  are  hardly  noticed 
at  all. 

This  is  a  matter  of  common  experience,  but 
has  been  strikingly  illustrated  with  frogs.  The 


THE    THEORY    OF    ADVERTISING 

following  quotation  is  taken  from  a  recent  work 

of  the  director  of  the  psychological    laboratory 

at  Yale  University:  " Although  a 

.  ™^  frog  jumps  readily  enough  when 
w  put  in  warm  water,  yet  a  frog  can 

be  boiled  without  a  movement  if 
the  water  is  heated  slowly  enough.  In  one  exper- 
iment the  water  was  heated  at  the  rate  of  .0036 
of  a  degree  Fahrenheit  per  second ;  the  frog  never 
moved  and  at  the  end  of  two  and  one-half  hours 
was  found  dead.  He  had  evidently  been  boiled 
without  noticing  it." 

My  explanation  of  these  results  is  that  at  any 
point  of  time  the  temperature  of  water  was  in  such 
little  contrast  with  the  temperature  a  moment 
before  that  the  attention  of  the  frog  was  never 
attracted  to  the  temperature  of  the  water  at  all ; 
so  the  frog  was  actually  boiled  to  death  without 
becoming  aware  of  the  fact! 

As  we  turn  the  pages  of  a  magazine  we  do  not 
see  each  page  as  an  independent  unit,  but  we  see 
it  in  relation  to  what  has  gone  before.  If  it  is  in 
marked  contrast  to  the  preceding  there  is  a  sort 
of  shock  felt  which  is  in  reality  the  perception  of 
the  (  itrast.  This  element  is  a  constant  force 
in  c1  i  wing  the  attention.  What  has  been  said  of 
the  full  page  is  equally  true  of  the  parts  of  it. 

In  the  case  of  magazine  or  newspaper  adver- 
tising, the  responsibility  for  making  effective 
contrasts  is  shared  alike  by  the  individual  adver- 

16 


ATTENTION 


tiser  and  by  the  "  make-up."  Contrasts  may  be 
so  harmoniously  formed  that  the  things  con- 
trasted are  mutually  strengthened,  just  as  is  the 
case  when  red  and  green  are  placed  in  juxtaposi- 
tion. The  red  looks  redder  and  the  green  looks 
greener.  But  if  the  contrast  is  incongruous  the^ 
value  of  each  is  impaired.  Thus  if  two  musical 
but  mutually  discordant  tones  are  sounded  together 
or  one  after  the  other,  the  beauty  of  each  is  lost. 

No  one  has  been  conscious  of  this  principle  of 
contrast  to  a  greater  extent  than  the  advertiser  4 
He    has    introduced    all    sorts    of 
°f  r*S  J       things     into     his     advertisements 
,  .g   ,        merely  to  attract  attention  through 
contrast :     He  has  inserted  his  ad- 
vertisements upside  down ;  he  has  had  the  lines 
V}f  the  reading  matter  run  crosswise;  he  has  sub- 
stituted black  background  for  the  ordinary  white. 
The  inherent  skill  of  the  American  advertiser  has 
been  made  manifest  by  this  ingenuity  in  devising 
novel,  ever-changing  and  striking  contrasts.     In- 
deed, some  have  followed  this  principle  too  far  and 
have  produced  novelties  and  contrasts,  but  their 
work  has  not  been  successful,  because  they  have 
violated  other  equally  important  principles. 

Thus  the  advertisement  of  the  Burlii^ton 
Route  employs  the  principle  of  contrast  success- 
fully. The  advertisement  of  Doctor  Slocum 
makes  use  of  the  same  principle,  but  the  result 
is  nothing  short  of  a  botch. 


THE    THEORY    OF    ADVERTISING 

The  three  principles  as   given  above   are  im- 

j  portant   and    are   the  three  methods  which   the 

(  practical  advertiser  uses  most  to  attract  atten- 

tion.    The  three  which  shall  be  given  next  are 

methods  which  are  of  almost  equal  importance, 

but   which    are    frequently   disregarded    by  the 

writers  of  advertisements. 

The  fourth  principle   is   that,  .Jke~  . 


-a&.  to  aUract-vw  atlen- 

tion^-er  its  attention  value,  depends 
of  Com-  '  -77;  L; 

,       .         on  the  ease  with  which  we  are  able 
prehension 

to  comprehend  -it. 

This  principle  is  one  which  is  often  neglected 
by  the  advertiser.  A  few  illustrations  will  help 
to  make  it  clear.  A  child  in  turning  over  the 
pages  of  a  book  or  magazine  does  not  have  his 
attention  attracted  at  all  by  the  printed  words. 
Even  the  pictures  do  not  attract  his  attention 
unless  they  are  in  bright  colors  or  represent  some- 
thing which  he  can  understand.  The  same  thing 
is  true  with  adults.  We  will  turn  our  attention 
to  nothing  unless  it  speaks  to  us  in  terms  which 
we  can  interpret  with  comparative  ease.  It  is 
difficult  to  comprehend  an  entirely  new  thing 
or  function.  From  this  it  follows  that  a  new 
article  should  be  introduced  as  a  modifica- 
tion of  a  familiar  one,  or  as  something  perform- 
ing a  well-known  function.  The  pedagogical 
maxim  of  always  advancing  from  the  known 
to  the  unknown  is  so  well  established  that  its 

18 


ATTENTION 


violation  must  be  regarded  as  more  or  less 
suicidal. 

Styles  of  lettering  that  are  not  easily  read  and 
cuts  that  are  not  easily  interpreted  are  not  so 
attractive  as  lettering  and  cuts  that  are  more 
simple  and  transparent  in  their  meaning. 

Cuts  that  in  themselves  are  good  and  lettering 
that  is  distinct  may  be  so  united  and  so  dimmed 
by  the  background  that  the  whole  is  an  indistinct 
blur.  As  an  example  of  an  advertisement  that  is 
good  as  to  individual  details  but  poor  as  to  the 
entire  effect,  we  have  reproduced  herewith  (No. 
3)  an  advertisement  of  the  Purina  Mills.  The 
display  of  this  advertisement  is  hard  to  read, 
and  it  is,  therefore,  not  so  attractive  as  it  would 
otherwise  be. 

The  name  or  brand  of  goods  often  makes  them 
difficult  to  advertise.  Thus  Orangeine  does  not 
suggest  what  the  Orangeine  Chemical  Company 
would  have  it  suggest.  People  do  not  know  what 
it  is,  and  so  fail  to  be  attracted  by  the  advertise- 
ment simply  because  it  is  meaningless  to  them. 

Many  advertisers  have  used  certain  forms  of 
expression  and  illustrations  which  bear  no  neces- 
sary relation  to  the  rest  of  the  advertisement  or 
to  the  goods  advertised.  They  have  been  called 
"irrelevant  words"  or  " irrelevant  cuts,"  as  the 
case  might  be.  Their  function  is  presumably  that 
of  attracting  attention.  As  they  stand,  they  are 
not  easily  comprehended,  and  actual  experiment 


THE    THEORY    OF    ADVERTISING 

has  shown  that  they  do  not  attract  the  attention 
of  one  hastily  looking  at  the  page  of  the  magazine 
as  often  as  relevant  words  or  relevant  cuts. 


RALSTON"-- 

TH  CREAM  FOR 
BREAKFAST 

TH  GRAVY  FOB 

DINNER -//.y 

buti/s 


No.  3 

The  advertisement  of  the  Murphy  Varnish 
Company,  as  reproduced  herewith  (No.  4),  has 
made  use  of  a  form  of  display  which  we  would  call 
"irrelevant  words."  This  display  has  nothing 

20 


ATTENTION 


particular  to  do  with  varnish.  It  could  be  used 
equally  well  with  almost  any  advertisement- 
appearing  in  magazines  to-day.  It  would,  how- 
ever, be  equally  poor  in  any  case.  It  does  not 
increase  the  reader's  knowledge  concerning  the. 

WHERE      YOU      CAN,      AND 

WHERE    YOU   CANNOT, 

ECONOMIZE. 

A  cheaper  horse  is  simply  LESS 
valuable:  an  ugly  flower  has  no  value 
at  all.  Cloth  not  so  fine  may  not  wear 
quite  so  long:  an  out-of-style  bonnet  is 
unwearable.  If  you  cannot  afford 
mahogany,  maple  will  do;  but  poor 
varnish  is  death  to  the  beauty  of 
anything. 

£  MURPHY  VARNISH  Co. 

FRANKLIN    MURPHY,    President 
Head  Office  :   Newark,  N  J 

Qther  Offices :   Boston,  Cleveland,  St.  Louis,  and  Chicago. 
Factories     Newark  and  Chicago. 

No.  4 

proposition  which  the  varnish  company  has  to 
offer,  and  the  ordinary  reader  would  not  be  likely 
to  be  attracted  by  any  such  "catch-words"  as 
these. 

The  advertisers  of  the  White  Star  Coffee  (No.  5) 
have  filled  up  one-half  of  their  space  with  the 

21 


THE     THEORY    OF    ADVERTISING 


picture  of  a  slimy  frog.     When  one  is  thinking  of 
frogs,  he  is  not  in  condition  to  listen  to  the  argu- 


"it's  easy 

to  ask  for' 

White 

ar 

Coffee 


Bujing  coffee   in  on» 
and   l\vo   pound   crf«'S 
makes  it  possible  for 
you  to  obtain   all  il>» 
strength    and     nil 
the  flavor     Thi-  1.1 
really     vvlmt     \oij 
buy       f  OT      t  lie 
ground*  >ou  tlirow 
away.     A  pound  of 

White 
Star  Coffee 
will     make     more 
cu  pi  t  dan  a  pmi i.d 
«-f  any  o  t  li  e  i 
brand.       be 
cause  it  is  de 
v  eloped    more 
highly. 


No.  5 


ments  in  favor  of  any  coffee.  But,  aside  from 
such  considerations,  I  believe  that  there  is  no 
proof  that  such  an  open  attempt  to  force  the 
attention  of  the  reader  is  advisable  or  successful. 


22 


ATTENTION 


The  advertisement  of  the  American  Lead  Pen- 
cil Company,  as  reproduced  herewith  (No.  6),  has 
made  use  of  cuts  that  illustrate.  Such  an  illustra- 


Klbat  Tt  Cooks  Like 


ed    d 

gnnallvacross  tb 
page  shows  the  actual 
size  of  thu  pencil,  and 
also    shows    a   sec- 
tional view  of  how 
the  lead 

ried  down  the  in- 
side barrel 
practtcallv  itn 
possible  for  it 
to  gee  out  of 
•rder. 


Absolutely  and  Cap  removed— pen. 

Unconditionally  ci  I   being    filled. 

Guaranteed  one  Relative  size  of 

year.  points  exaggerated 

Patented  in  United  States  and  Abroad. 


No.  6 

tion  is  called  a  relevant  cut.  The  casual  reader 
sees  at  a  glance  what  this  advertisement  is 
all  about,  and  such  advertisements  attract  us 
instantly. 

23 


THE     THEORY    OF    ADVERTISING 

The  great  majority  of  all  advertisements  appear- 
ing at  the  present  time  make  use  of  words  in  dis- 
play type  which  indicate  in  brief  what  the  entire 
advertisement  is  about.  Such  headings  are  called 
relevant  words.  The  picture  which  tells  the  story 
is  more  easily  comprehended  than  any  possible 
expression  in  words.  This  is  one  reason  why  the 
picture  is  the  most  attractive  form  of  advertising. 

The  fifth  principle  is  that  ike,  atigntt&u  value 
an-gbject  depends  on  the  number  of  times  it  comes 
oefore  us,  or  on  repetitiVrtr. — -^ 

It  is  no  anomaly  that  children  are  attracted 
most  by  the  oft-repeated  tale.  This  is  in  but 

-n       ....          apparent  contradiction  to  the  third 
Repetition          .     .  ,  . 

principle.      A    thing    which    is  -in 

contrast  to  all  other  things  and  yet  frequently 
repeated  meets  both  conditions.  The  psychological 
explanation  of  the  value  of  repetition  is  somewhat 
involved,  but  the  fact  is  seen  by  every  careful 
observer.  The  questions  concerning  repetition  as 
applied  to  advertising  are  as  yet  unsettled. 

In  the  case  of  goods  having  an  equal  sale  all 
the  year,  if  a  given  advertisement  is  to  appear  one 
hundred  times  is  it  best  to  insert  it  in  one  hun- 
dred different  magazines  once,  so  that  the  reader 
can  see  it  in  all  his  periodicals  for  a  few  days,  or 
is  it  better  to  have  the  same  advertisement  appear 
in  one  hundred  different  issues  of  the  same  maga- 
zine? In  other  words,  are  repetitions  more  effec- 
tive if  they  follow  rapidly  one  after  the  other, 

24 


(    UNIVERSITY   ) 

v  or  J 

ATT 


or  if  they   are  separated  by  a  longer  period  of 
time? 

Another  question  is  this:  How  much  of  an 
advertisement  should  be  repeated?  Some  adver-i 
tisements  have  unchangeable  characteristics  which 
are  always  repeated  arid  which  serve  to  identify 
all  the  advertisements  of  a  particular  house. 
Others  are  completely  changed  as  to  all  prominent 
features  with  every  issue,  and  the  casual  observer  r 
would  not  notice  that  the  two  successive  adver- 
tisements were  for  the  same  goods  —  he  certainly 
would  not  notice  that  they  were  from  the  same 
house.  Still  other  advertisements  have  certain 
prominent  features  which  are  constantly  chang- 
ing, but  which  are  always  recognizable  as  repre- 
senting the  same  firm. 

The  advertisement  which  is  the  same  from  year 
to  year  is  lacking  in  contrast.  It  is  not  necessarily 
ineffective,  but  it  takes  time  to  accomplish  its  re- 
sults. The  frog  that  was  boiled  without  noticing 
it  succumbed  at  last  to  the  slowly  rising  tempera- 
ture. The  man  who  sees  the  same  advertisement 
month  after  month  will  at  last  purchase  the 
goods  advertised  without  ever  having  paid  any 
particular  attention  to  the  advertisement  and 
would  be  unable  to  say  why  he  purchased  those 
particular  goods. 

The  advertisement  which  is  changed  completely 
with  every  issue  is  lacking  in  repetition  value  and 
would  be  good  only  when  it  is  of  such  a  nature 

25 


THE    THEORY    OF    ADVERTISING 

that  a  large  per  cent,  of  the  intended  purchasers 
would  read  it  thoroughly  enough  to  supply  the 
missing  links  and  to  unite  it  to  the  others  of  the 
series. 

The  advertisement  with  a  constant  recognizable 
feature  that  varies  in  detail  from  time  to  time 
allows  for  both  change  and  repetition,  and  is  to 
that  extent  the  best  advertisement. 

This  advertisement  of  a  printing  press  com- 
pany (No.  7)  has,  so  far  as  I  know,  never  been 

I  Print  My  Own  Cards 

Circulars,  Newspaper.  Press  $:».  Larger  size,  918. 
Money  saver.  Big  profits  printing  for  others. 
Type  setting  easy,  rules  sent.  Write  for  catalog, 
presses,  type,  paper,  etc.,  to  factory. 

THE    PRESS    CO.,   Meriden,  Conn. 

No.  7 

changed.  It  is  just  the  same  in  all  publications 
in  which  the  firm  advertises,  and  is  the  same  year 
in  and  year  out.  It  has  doubtless  been  more  or 
less  successful.  Would  it  have  been  more  effec- 
tive if  the  copy  had  been  changed  ? 

The  two  advertisements  of  the  Franklin  Mills 
(Nos.  8  and  9)  have  nothing  in  common.  No  one 
but  a  careful  reader  would  know  that  they  were 
advertisements  of  the  same  firm.  This  same  firm 
has  been  careful  to  have  the  wheat  border  in  all 
advertisements  of  Wheatlet.  The  seal  containing 
the  portrait  of  Franklin  is  also  often  present  in 
the  advertisements  of  Wheatlet.  Would  it  not 
be  advisable  to  retain  this  wheat  border  or  the 

26 


ATTENTION 


seal  in  all  advertisements  issuing  from  this  firm? 
If  certain  readers  had  become  interested  in  the 
advertisements  of  Wheatlet,  for  instance,  and  had 


OVER  ALLOTtlER.  (ZEALS. 

For  Uncle  Sam's  boys,  the  Government  demand  the 
best.  Unsolicited,  the  Government's  order  for 

WHEATLET 

reaches  us  regularly,  because  careful  test  proved 
Wheullet  the  best  cereal. 

Whether  you  lead  a  strenuous  life  or  not.  Wheatlet 
will  do  you  more  good  than  any  breakfast  food  you 
Can  ent.  Start  the  New  Year  right. 

Prove  everything  we  say  with  full  half  pound  sample 
mailed  for  grocer's  name  and  3  two  cent  stamps. 

THE  FRANKLIN  MILLS  COMPANY. 

"All  the  U'hrat  that's,  Fit  to  Eat,"1 

7ogSpringarden  St..        LOCKPORT.  N  Y. 

$200  is  to  be  given  Children.     Write,  us. 


No.  8 


become  familiar  with  the  characteristic  seal,  they 
would  be  attracted  by  the  other  advertisements  of 
this  firm  if  they  saw  the  seal  down  in  the  corner 
of  the  advertisement. 


THE     THEORY    OF    ADVERTISING 

Very  many  firms  are  at  the  present  time  chang- 
ing their  copy  frequently,  but  they  retain  some 


"Half  a  Loaf 

is  better  than  no  loaf  " 

is  a  good,  true  old  saying;  half  a  loaf  is 
better  than  a  whole  loaf  if  that  half  loaf 
be  made  of 


LOUR 


A  FINE 

FLOUR 

OF 

THE 

ENTIRE 

WHEAT 


Containing  "all  the  wheat  that's  fit  to  eat." 

This  is  the  trade-mark  to  be  found  on 
every  package  and 
every  barrel  of  the 
genuine  Franklin 
Mills  Flour. 

It  is  sold  by  first- 
class  grocers  gen- 
erally in  original 
packages  of  from 
6/8  Ibs.  to  full  bar- 
rels of  196  Ibs. 

Manufactured  only  by 

THE  FRANKLIN  MILLS  CO.,     Lockport,  N.  ¥. 

WRITE  THEM  FOR  FREE  BOOKLET. 

No.  Q 

characteristic  feature  so  that  we  can  recognize 
the  new  advertisements  as  old  friends  in  a  new 
form.  Thus  the  Cream  of  Wheat  advertisements 
are  identified  by  the  genial  colored  chef.  I  have 

28 


ATTENTION 


come  to  like  that  chef,  and  am  attracted  by  every 
advertisement  in  which  he  appears.  If  he  were 
left  out  I  would  not  be  so  likely  to  notice  the 
advertisement  as  I  am  with  him  in  it.  Each  of 
their  advertisements  is  in  a  sense  new  and  in 
contrast  with  all  their  other  advertisements,  but 
this  colored  chef  offers  just  enough  of  repetition 
to  make  the  advertisement  attractive. 

The  sixth  and  last  principle  is  that  the  atten- 

/"Z  .  X.  tionjughdjz^of^  an  object  depends_on 
the^wrteMsziyof  the  feejjjj,g_aroused. 

Attention  is  not  merely  a  process  in  which  the 
mind  grasps  a  certain  fact,  but  it  is  also  a  process 
in  which  we  feel.  It  is  either  a  pleasurable  or  a 
painful  feeling.  That  a  thing  may  attract  our 
attention  it  must  not  affect  us  indifferently,  but 
must  either  please  or  displease  us.  At  this  point 
the  work  of  the  true  artist  becomes  essential.  In 
the  ideal  advertisement  the  emotions  and  sensi- 
bilities of  the  possible  customers  must  be  appealed 
to. 

In  all  advertisements  the  esthetic  feelings  may 
be  aroused  by  at  least  the  harmonious  combina- 
tions of  color  and  form.  Curiosity,  pride,  sym- 
pathy, ambition,  and  many  other  feelings  and 
emotions  have  been  awakened  by  the  skillful 
advertiser.  With  certain  advertisers  the  desire 
seems  to  have  been  merely  to  attract  attention 
regardless  of  the  emotion  awakened.  They  have 
been  successful  in  attracting  attention,  but  their 

29 


THE     THEORY    OF    ADVERTISING 

advertisements  are  so  obtrusive  and  repulsive 
that  their  value,  as  a  means  of  selling  goods,  is 
inconsiderable. 

The  man  that  confines  himself  to  the  simple 
statement  of  facts  may  not  be  subject  to  the 
mistakes  that  befall  the  man  who  attempts  more 
difficult  things.  The  photographer  presents  all 
the  details  of  a  scene,  but  he  does  not  appeal  to 
the  emotions  and  the  heart  of  the  public  as  the 
artist  does.  The  work  of  the  photographer  may 
be  truer  to  the  facts,  but  the  work  of  the  artist 
attracts  our  attention  more  readily.  We  do  not 
understand  the  feelings  and  emotions  of  the  hu- 
man breast,  and  yet  it  is  often  advisable  to  run 
the  risk  of  attempting  appeals  to  the  emotions. 

There  are  scores  of  advertisers  who  attempt  to 
appeal  to  the  joyful  emotions.  It 

Joys  an        should  be  remembered  that  ioy  is 
Sorrows,       ,  .  , ,  .  _, J      . 

Both  Usable  °ne  emotions.    The  vis- 

itor of  an  art  gallery  is  at  once 
struck  by  the  frequent  appeal  to  the  sadder  emo- 
tions. It  is  not  at  all  easy  to  find  in  our  magazine 
advertising  any  appeal  or  any  reference  to  the 
more  pathetic  aspects  of  life.  The  following  is 
a  reproduction  (No.  10)  of  an  advertisement  of 
the  Prudential  Insurance  Company.  This  adver- 
tisement does  not  appear  in  recent  magazines, 
yet  it  is  certainly  much  better  than  many  highly 
approved  advertisements  of  insurance  companies. 
The  skillful  advertiser  should  be  able  to  appeal  to 

30 


ATTENTION 


more  than  one  emotion  and  he  should  be  able  to 
appeal  to  the  one  which  brings  the  reader  into  the 


TT  is  hard  enough  on  a  woman  to  be  thrown  on  her  own  resources.  The 
I  death  of  the  husband  and  father  is  quite  enough  by  itself.  If  the  burden  of 
debt  and  want  be  added  to  it,  the  woman's  life  is  hardly  worth  the  living. 
Comparatively  few  men  in  America  are  able  to  accumulate  any  money. 
Perhaps  not  one  in  a  hundred  does  it.-  It  is  this  that  makes  life  insurance 
an  imperative  necessity.  Nobody  can  take  the  insurance  money  away  from 
the  one  to  whom  you  make  it  payable.  It  will  nof  assuage  the  grief,  .but 
it  will  increase  the  comfort  of  those  who  are  living.  It  discharges,  to  some 
extent,  the  obligation  every  man  incurs  when  he  marries. 

Our  two  forms  of  life  insurance,  the  "Industrial"  (for  policies  of  $1000 
or  less,  on  weekly  payments)  and  the  "Ordinary"  (lor  policies  of  $1000 
and  more,  quarterly,  semi-annual,  and  annual  payments),  are  clearly  ex- 
plained in  our  booklets— sent  free  on  request. 

Prudential  Insurance  Co. 

of  America 

IOHN  F.  DRYDEN,  President.  Home  O«i«,  NEWARK,  N.  J. 


No.  10 


attitude  of  mind  which  is  in  keeping  with    the 
proposition  offered. 

The  designer  of  advertisements  must  be  some- 
thing more  than  a  skilled  artisan  ;  he  must  be  an 
artist  and  must  be  able  to  put  soul  into  his  work, 


THE     THEORY    OF    ADVERTISING 

so  that  his  production  will  appeal  to  the  sentiment 
as  well  as  to  the  intellect  of  those  who  are  to  be 
influenced  by  it.  The  art  demands  the  work  of 
an  artist. 

Such  is  in  brief  the  discussion  of  the  six  funda- 
mental principles  underlying  the  psychology  of 
involuntary  attention  in  general,  and  the  psychol- 
ogy of  involuntary  attention  as  applied  to  adver- 
tising in  particular.  The  purpose  of  this  chapter 
is  to  present  in  an  introductory  manner  the  psy- 
chology of  a  part  of  advertising,  i.  e.,  involun- 
tary attention,  and  with  special  reference  to 
magazine  and  newspaper  advertising. 

Before  the  psychology  of  involuntary  attention 
is  complete,  the  following  are  among  the  questions 
that  must  be  investigated: 

For  any  particular  class  of  advertisements,  what 
is  the  least  possible  space  for  a 

^  '  must-be-seen   advertisement? 

Investigated         What  is  the  comParative  atten~ 
tion  value  of  different-sized  adver- 
tisements, for  instance,  a  quarter  and  a  full  page 
advertisement  ? 

What  is  the  comparative  attention  value  of 
space  among  classified  advertisements  and  of  space 
among  unclassified  advertisements,  or  advertise- 
ments of  a  different  class  of  goods  ? 

Is  the  additional  attention  value  secured  by 
tinted  paper,  colored  type,  and  colored  cuts  suffi- 
cient to  warrant  their  increased  introduction. 

32 


ATTENTION 


What  size  and  style  of  type  is  the  most  valua- 
ble for  attracting  attention  ? 

What  part  of  a  page  and  which  pages  are  the 
most  valuable  for  attention  ? 

What  is  the  comparative  attention  value  of 
novel  and  of  conventional  advertisements? 

How  does  repetition  affect  the  attention  value 
of  an  advertisement?  How  complete  should  the 
repetition  be  and  how  often  and  how  rapidly 
should  the  advertisement  be  repeated  to  secure 
the  best  results? 

Is  a  small  advertisement  appearing  one  hun- 
dred times  a  year  as  good  as  one  ten  times  as 
large  and.  appearing  ten  times  in  a  year  ? 

What  are  the  respective  attention  values  of 
relevant  cuts,  relevant  words,  irrelevant  cuts  and 
irrelevant  words  ? 

Is  a  line  of  display  type  extending  entirely 
across  a  page  as  valuable  as  the  same  display  in 
two  lines  extending  half  across  the  page  ? 

What  is  the  relative  attention  value  of  repre- 
sentations of  the  pathetic,  humorous,  pleasing, 
and  displeasing? 

Such  is  a  brief  syllabus  for  future  investigation 
upon  involuntary  attention  as  applied  to  adver- 
tising. These  questions  can  probably  all  be  an- 
swered, some  easily  and  others  only  after  difficult 
and  extensive  investigations.  It  is  quite  plain 
that  investigation  on  these  questions  would  be  of 
the  greatest  practical  value  to  the  advertiser. 

33 


Ill 

ASSOCIATION    OF    IDEAS 

EVERY  one  has  wondered  how  it  happens  that 
a  thought  or  idea  has  suddenly  and  unexpectedly 
entered  his  mind.  Not  unfrequently  the  partic- 
ular idea  had  not  been  entertained  for  years,— 
perhaps  it  had  no  apparent  connection  with 
the  present  line  of  thought,  —  and  yet  here  it  is, 
seemingly  unaltered  and  as  distinct  as  it  had 
been  years  before. 

If  anything  in  the  world  has  the 

appearance  of  lawlessness,  it  cer- 
Apparently     ta{nl     ^  the  fli  ht  Q£  th       ht  in 

Lawless  .    ,       .  TT7 

these  minds  of  ours.     We  can  go 

from  Chicago  to  Peking ;  from  the  present  mo- 
ment to  the  building  of  the  pyramids  or  the  crea- 
tion of  the  universe.  We  can  pick  out  any  object 
or  event  included  within  the  borders  of  space  or 
time.  We  can  go  from  any  one  of  these  objects 
or  events  to  any  other  in  an  instant  of  time,  and 
whole  multitudes  of  them  may  be  passed  in 
review  in  scarcely  more  than  a  single  second.  It 
would  be  difficult  to  imagine  anything  less  con- 
fined and  apparently  less  subject  to  laws  than 
the  human  mind. 

Furthermore,  no  two  minds  are  alike.  Men 
differ  as  to  facial  expression  in  a  much  less  degree 
than  in  the  manner  in  which  they  think. 

34 


ASSOCIATION      OF      IDEAS 

However  hopeless  the  task  may  seem  at  first 
sight,  it  is  nevertheless  true  that  from  the  time 
of  Aristotle  down  to  the  present  day  great  thinkers 
have  been  engaged  in  trying  to  find  laws  accord- 
ing to  which  the  mind  acts.  They  have  not  been 
content  with  the  surprise  which  they  have  felt 
when  an  idea  has  unexpectedly  entered  their 
minds,  but  they  have  gone  further  and  sought  for 
the  laws  which  regulate  this  sudden  appearance. 
Much  progress  has  been  made,  and  the  mind  is 
gradually  being  recognized  as  consistent  and  law- 
abiding  as  are  all  other  things  in  the  universe. 

In  many  cases  we  can  readily  see  why  we  are 
thinking  of  particular  things  at  a  specified  time. 
As  I  walk  down  a  busy  street,  unless  I  am  obliv- 
ious to  my  surroundings  my  thought  is  deter- 
mined for  me  by  the  objects  which  surround  me. 
My  eye  is  caught  by  an  artistically  decorated  win- 
dow in  which  sporting  goods  are  displayed.  My 
mind  is  fully  occupied  for  the  time  with  the  percep- 
tion of  these  articles.  The  perception  of  one  object 
is  superseded  by  the  perception  of  another,  and 
in  most  cases  nothing  but  the  present  objects  are 
thought  of,  and  this  perception  of  present  objects 
does  not  recall  to  my  mind  any  objects  which  I 
have  seen  at  other  times.  It  happens,  however, 
that  as  I  see  a  sweater  I  think  of  the  sweater  which 
I  used  to  wear,  and  then  of  the  circumstances 
which  attended  its  destruction.  My  mind  is  next 
occupied  with  the  perception  of  clothing,  milli- 

35 


THE     THEORY    OF    ADVERTISING 

nery,  etc.,  as  these  objects,  one  after  the  other, 
meet  the  direct  gaze  of  my  eyes.  At  the  sight  of 
shoes  I  am  reminded  of  my  need  for  a  new  pair; 
then  of  the  particular  make  of  shoes  which  I  ordi- 
narily wear;  then  of  the  pair  which  I  purchased 
a  few  months  ago  and  of  the  circumstances  attend- 
ing the  purchase.  So  I  may  go  on  for  hours,  and 
in  a  large  part  my  thoughts  will  be  limited  to  the 
perception  of  objects  and  events  which  surround 
me,  but  in  certain  cases  (e.  g.,  sweater  and  shoes) 
the  perception  suggests  a  previous  experience. 
In  the  case  of  simple  perception  the  mind  seems 
to  act  under  the  ordinary  laws  of  cause  and  effect. 
The  objects  on  the  street  affect  me  and  the  per- 
ceptions are  the  result.  What  my  thoughts  shall 
be  are  determined  for  me  by  the  external  objects 
which  affect  my  sense  organs. 

Under  other  circumstances  the 
Association     mind  seems  to  be  independent  of/ 

Illustrated  -,.         ,  .  , 

surrounding  objects  and  to  supply 

the  food  for  thought  from  former  experiences. 
This  is  especially  true  in  dreams,  sleepless  nights, 
and  reveries.  Its  working  is  clearly  seen  in  all 
cases  where  we  are  not  distracted  by  external1 
objects  and  do  not  attempt  to  direct  the  thought 
along  any  particular  line.  Some  time  ago  I  read 
President  Roosevelt's  decision  concerning  the 
Sampson-Schley  controversy.  After  retiring  for 
the  night  I  found  that  I  was  thinking  of  the  Rocky 
Mountains,  New  Orleans,  the  Boer  war,  an  Evans- 

36 


ASSOCIATION      OF      IDEAS 

ton  dining-room,  the  siege  of  Peking,  the  recent 
action  of  the  dowager  empress,  the  American 
army  and  navy,  and  then  of  the  Sampson-Schley 
controversy  again.  The  interesting  part  of  each 
idea  tends  to  suggest,  or  to  recall  to  the  mind 
some  previous  experience  with  which  this  inter- 
esting part  had  been  previously  associated.  As 
I  thought  of  the  Sampson-Schley  controversy, 
the  interesting  thing  just  then  was  that  it  had 
been  reviewed  by  President  Roosevelt.  The 
interesting  thing  about  President  Roosevelt  just 
then  was  that  he  had  hunted  in  the  Rockies.  The 
interesting  thing  about  that  was  that  he  had 
ridden  a  horse.  In  a  similar  manner  the  horse 
suggested  New  Orleans,  where  recent  shipments  of 
horses  had  been  made  to  South  Africa.  This  sug- 
gested the  Boer  war,  this  a  conversation  on  war 
by  a  young  lady  who  had  returned  to  Evanston 
from  China.  She  suggested  Peking;  Peking  sug- 
gested the  dowager  empress;  she  suggested  her 
recent  actions;  these  changed  conditions  sug- 
gested the  American  army  and  navy;  and  they 
suggested  Sampson  and  Schley,  and  they  the 
recent  controversy. 

As  I  walk  along  the  street  the  action  of  my 
mind,  even  when  not  confined  to  bare  perceptions, 
seems  different  from  its  action  on  the  sleepless 
night.  As  far. as  the  association  of  ideas  is  con- 
cerned, however,  the  action  is  practically  identi- 
cal. In  the  first  case  the  perceptions  of  external 

37 


THE     THEORY    OF    ADVERTISING 

objects  (sweater  and  shoes)  are  effective  in  calling 
up  ideas  or  experiences  with  which  they  had  for-i 
merly  been  associated.  In  the  second  case  the 
ideas  are  effective  in  calling  up  other  ideas  with 
which  they  had  formerly  been  associated. 

The  statement  of  the  law  as  it  applies  to  both 
cases    and    expressed    in    general 

terms    is:  "Whenever    there    is    in 

Universal 

Principle  consciousness  one  element  of  a  pre,- 
vious  experience,  this  one/  element^ 
tends  to  bring  back  the  entire  experience!^  Things 
thought  together  or  in  immediate  succession 
become  "associated,"  or  welded  together  so  that 
when  one  returns  it  tends  to  recall  the  others. 
The  sight  of  a  shoe  suggested  the  entire  "shoe 
experience,"  in  which  I  had  entered  a  store,  pur- 
Chased  a  pair  of  shoes,  carried  on  a  conversation 
Wxch  the  proprietor,  etc.  The  thought  of  Presi- 
dent Roosevelt  suggested  an  entire  "Roosevelt 
experience,"  i.  e.,  President  Roosevelt  mounted 
on  a  horse,  attired  in  a  particular  costume*, 
amid  particular  scenery,  etc. 

But  I  had  had  many  other  "shoe  experiences  " 
and  many  other  ' '  President  Roosevelt  experi- . 
ences."  How  did  it  happen  that  the  shoe  sug- 
gested the  particular  shoe  experience  which  it 
did,  and  not  tennis  shoes  which  I  had  purchased 
recently,  or  the  wooden  shoes  which  I  had  exam- 
ined years  before  ?  .Why  did  not  President  Roose- 
velt suggest  his  trip  to  see  his  sick  son,  or  his 

38 


ASSOCIATION      OF      IDEAS 

message  to  Congress,  or  his  literary  productions? 
Each  "one  element  in  a  previous  experience  "  has 
been  one  element  in  many  previous  experiences. 
Which  one  of  these  previous  experiences  will  be" 
suggested  by  the  "one  element  "  is  the  problem 
which  is  of  interest  to  us. 

If  we  knew  a  person's  past  history  completely, 

and  if  we  knew  the  present   external  stimulus 

and  the  present  condition  of  his  mind,  we  could 

tell  with  some  degree  of  certainty 

Three  Laws  what  the  next  idea  would  be 
which  is  to  enter  his  mind.  The 
laws  upon  which  this  certainty  is  based  are  the 
three  following: 

The  first  law  is  that  of  /Ej^TbasecLon  repetition .  * 

According  to  this  law  the  idea  next  to  enter  the 
mind  is  the  one  which  has  habitually  been  associated 
with  [the  interesting  part  of]  the  one  present  to  the 
mind.  The  sight  of  a  shoe,  the  printed  word 
"  shoe,"  the  spoken  word  "  shoe,"  and  the  felt  need 
of  a  shoe,  each  calls  to  my  mind  this  particular 
make  of  shoes  with  which  I  have  been  familiar 
for  years.  I  have  perceived  a  shoe  as  a  "  Doug- 
las;" I  have  seen  "  Douglas  "  and  "  shoe"  printed 
together;  I  have  heard  "Douglas"  and  "shoe" 
spoken  together;  I  have  seen  the  portrait  of  Mr. 
Douglas  and  a  cut  of  his  shoe  appearing  together ; 
I  have  met  my  need  for  shoes  with  a  "  Doug- 
las." All  these  associations  have  been  frequent 
and  have  become  so  welded  together  with  constant 

39 


THE     THEORY    OF    ADVERTISING 

use  that  when  shoe  enters  my  mind,  it  draws  its 
habitual  associate,  Douglas,  with  it. 

The  second  law  is  that  of  recency. 

If  two  things  have  been  recently  connected  in  the 
mind,  when  one  is  thought  of  again  it  suggests  the 
other  also.  One  day  I  read  and  thought  of  the 
exportation  of  horses  frora  New  Orleans.  I  do 
not  .know  that  horses  and  New  Orleans  were  ever 
associated  in  my  mind  but  this  single  time,  but 
the  next  day  as  I  thought  of  President  Roosevelt 
as  mounted  on  a  horse,  the  thought  of  horse  imme- 
diately suggested  its  recent  associate,  New  Orleans. 
The  recency  of  this  association  made  it  effective. 
If  I  had  read  of  this  exportation  a  month  before 
instead  of  on  the  preceding  day,  it  is  not  probable 
that  this  associate  would  have  been  suggested. 

The  third  law  is  that  of  vividness  or  intensity,. 

If  my  present  thought  has  been  associated  with  a 
thousand  different  objects,  that  one  will  be  suggested 
with  which  it  has  been  most  vividly  associated. 

When  I  thought  of  the  Boer  war,  war  suggested 
the  siege  of  Peking  because  the  lady  who  had  re- 
turned from  China  described  the  siege  of  Peking 
in  such  a  thrilling  manner  —  war  and  the  siege  of 
Peking  were  so  intensely  associated  —  that  when 
I  thought  of  war,  war  suggested  this  particular 
association.  The  association  between  war  and 
Peking  was  not  only  vivid,  but  was  also  habitual 
and  recent,  even  if  these  latter  elements  do  not 
seem  so  prominent. 

40 


A  S  SO  C  I  A  T  I  O  N      OF      I  D  E  A  S 

Psychologists  are  practically  agreed  that  these 
are  the  three  special  laws  of  the  association  of 
ideas  and  that  the  "  idea  which  shall  come  next" 
conforms  to  these  three  simple  formulae. 

The  law  of  habit  is  very  much  more  important 
than  the  other  two.  When  one  element  has  been 
associated  with  one  experience  habitually,  with 
another  recently,  and  with  still  another  vividly, 
the  chances  are  that  the  habitual  experience  (asso- 
ciate) will  be  recalled.  If,  however,  the  one  ele- 
ment has  been  associated  with  a  certain  expe- 
rience habitually,  recently,  and  vividly,  this  one 
element  will  certainly  call  up  this  particular 
experience  and  none  of  the  multitudes  of  other 
experiences  with  which  it  had  been  associated. 

The  application  of  all  this  to  advertising  is 
direct.  The  merchant  desires  so 
to  advertise  his  goods  that  his 

,.  .          particular  brand  or  article  will  be 
Advertising 

the  only  one  suggested  whenever 

his  class  of  goods  is  thought  of. 

Let  the  reader  of  this  article  test  the  truthful- 
ness of  the  preceding  analysis.  Test  it  and  see 
whether  the  laws  of  habit,  recency,  and  vividness 
cover  all  the  cases  of  association  of  ideas  in  your 
own  mind.  Think  over  your  possible  needs  in 
wearing  apparel.  Where  would  you  go  to  supply 
that  need,  and  what  quality  or  make  would  you 
get?  As  you  think  of  these  possible  needs  what 
names,  brands,  or  qualities  are  suggested?  Now 


THE    THEORY    OF    ADVERTISING 

analyze  these  ideas  and  see  if  they  do  not  all  con- 
form to  the  three  laws  given  above.  You  are 
probably  surprised  to  see  how  many  of  the  ideas 
are  those  which  you  have  habitually  associated 
with  that  class  of  goods.  Try  the  same  experi- 
ment with  articles  of  food,  luxury,  investment, 
etc.,  and  you  will  be  convinced  that  the  advertise- 
ments which  are  the  most  often  seen  have  a  great 
advantage  over  those  which  are  less  often  seen. 

Long  years  ago  you  formed  the  habit  of  put- 
ting your  coat  on  in  a  particular  way.  Perhaps 
you  put  the  right  sleeve  on  first,  perhaps  the  left. 
You  have  formed  the  habit  of  putting  it  on  just 
one  way  and  you  will  put  it  on  just  that  way  as 
long  as  you  live.  If  you  put  on  the  right  sleeve 
first  this  morning,  you  will  put  it  on  the  same 
way  to-morrow  morning  and  every  other  morning. 
Of  course  you  could  change  and  put  the  left 
sleeve  on  first,  but  you  won't  do  it.  The  mind 
forms  habits  of  thought  and  when  they  are -once 
established  they  are  controlling  factors  in  the 
action  of  the  mind.  As  a  boy  I  associated  cer- 
tain names  with  certain  articles  of  merchandise. 
I  saw  a  particular  soap  advertised  in  various  ways. 
Perhaps  it  was  used  in  my  home  —  I  am  not  sure 
about  that.  This  name  and  soap  were  so  habit- 
ually associated  in  my  mind  as  a  boy  that  when 
I  think  of  soap  this  particular  soap  is  the  kind  I 
am  most  likely  to  think  of  even  to  the  present 
time,  although  it  has  not  been  called  to  my  mind 

42 


ASSOCIATION      OFIDEAS 

so  often  of  recent  years  as  other  kinds  of  soap. 
As  far  as  the  association  of  ideas  is  concerned, 
that  advertisement  is  the  most  effective  which 
is  most  often  thought  of  in  connection  with  the 
line  of  goods  advertised,  but  the  associations 
formed  in  youth  are  more  effective  than  those 
formed  in  later  years.  Their  effectiveness  is 
lasting  and  will  still  have  influence  as  long  as  the 
person  lives.  Hence  goods  of  a  constant  and 
recurrent  use  might  well  be  advertised  in  home  or 
even  children's  papers,  and  the  advertisements 
might  be  so  constructed  that  they  would  be 
appreciated  by  children. 

Whenever  I  think  of  photographical  instru- 
ments I  think  of  one  particular  make  of  cameras. 
If  I  should  feel  a  need  of  buying  a  camera,  I  would 
find  immediately  that  I  was  thinking  of  this  par- 
ticular make.  If  I  were  called  upon  to  recom- 
mend a  camera,  this  one  would  always  suggest 
itself  to  me  first.  It  is  suggested  immediately 
and  involuntarily.  In  my  particular  case  this 
advertisement  of  cameras  is  successful  and  for 
me  has  a  decided  prestige  over  all  other  cameras. 
If  I  try  to  think  out  the  reason  why  this  particular 
one  is  suggested  whenever  I  need  or  think  of 
cameras,  it  seems  to  me  that  it  is  because  it  com- 
plies with  both  the  laws  of  habit  and  vividness. 
I  do  not  remember  to  have  noticed  any  adver- 
tisement of  cameras  recently,  nor  have  I  had  any 
occasion  to  think  of  them  for  some  time.  I  do 

43 


THE     THEORY    OF    ADVERTISING 

know,  however,  that  for  several  years  I  saw  this 
advertisement  repeatedly  —  therefore  it  is  with 
me  an  habitual  association.  I  also  remember 
that  at  one  time  I  read  a  booklet  published  by 
this  company  and  that  it  impressed  me  profoundly 
-  therefore  it  is  for  me  a  vivid  association. 

If  you  made  the  test  recommended  above,  you 
found  that  in  some  cases  goods  were  suggested 
that  were  not  the  ones  habitually  thought  of,  but 
those  which  had  been  recently  in  the  mind.  Per- 
haps they  had  only  been  brought  to  your  atten- 
tion this  single  time.  Although  the  effective- 
ness of  habitual  associations  is  all  the  more  last- 
ing the  longer  the  advertisement  is  maintained, 
it  gradually  diminishes  unless  the  repetition  is  con- 
tinued. The  recent  associates  are  brought  back 
to  the  mind  with  the  greatest  readiness,  and  in 
some  cases  they  prevail  over  the  merely  habit- 
ual. This  emphasizes  the  necessity  of  keeping  up 
the  repetition  to  make  the  habitual  most  effective, 
to  form  the  most  recent  associate,  and  thus  take 
advantage  of  the  prestige  gained  by  former  adver- 
tising. Only  by  frequent  advertising  are  the 
habitual  associations  formed  and  the  recent  asso- 
ciates constantly  made. 

You  also  noticed  in  your  experiments  that 
certain  goods  were  suggested  of  which  you  had 
not  recently  thought  and  of  which,  perhaps,  you 
had  thought  but  once  in  your  life.  This  one  time 
you  had  seen  a  very  striking  advertisement,  or 

44 


ASSOCIATION      OF      IDEAS 

had  heard  the  goods  highly  recommended  by  a 
friend,  or  had  seen  and  used  the  goods.  For  in- 
stance, one  vivid  and  intense  association  of  hats 
and  Smith  was  so  strong  that  at  the  very  thought 
of  hats  Smith's  name  presented  itself  too.  You 
thought  of  Smith  and  hats  at  the  same  time, 
and  the  two  thoughts  were  so  vivid  that  they 
became  welded  together  by  the  white  heat  of  the 
mind,  and  so  when  hats  are  in  the  mind  Smith 
must  come  with  them.  This  shows  that  some- 
times doing  extraordinary  things  in  advertising 
may  succeed  when  it  is  desired  to  make  a  great 
impression  and  to  have  the  associations  formed 
under  this  white  heat.  It  may  be  admitted  that 
this  sort  of  advertising  has  been  successful  in 
some  cases.  The  law  is  that  the  mind  is  in  general 
gradually  molded.  Lines  of  thought  are  devel- 
oped and  not  suddenly  formed.  The  advertiser 
who  attempts  suddenly  to  take  the  world  by  storm 
has  "to  go  against  nature"  and  is  consequently 
at  a  very  great  disadvantage. 

The  entire  subject  of  association  of  ideas  may 
be  made  clearer  and  more  definite  if,  in  conclusion^ 
its  action  in  another  concrete  case  is  given.  For 
years  I  have  seen  the  statement  that  the  Burling- 
ton Railroad  goes  to  Colorado.  I  have  thus 
thought  Burlington  and  Colorado  together,  and 
every  time  they  have  entered  my  mind  together 
they  have  become  more  tightly  welded  together, 
or  associated,  until  now  Colorado  is  no  sooner  in 

45 


THE    THEORY    OF    ADVERTISING 

my  mind  than  I  find  that  Burlington  is  also  there. 
When  I  analyze  this  association  to  see  how  it  has 
been  formed,  I  find,  in  the  first  place,  that  for  years 
I  have  seen  the  words  Burlington  and  Colorado  to- 
gether. I  have  thought  the  two  ideas  together 
repeatedly,  and  the  association  has  become  habit- 
ual. In  the  second  place,  I  find  that  but  yesterday 
I  saw  the  words  Burlington  and  Colorado  together 
and  thought  the  two  thoughts  together  and  so  the 
association  was  recent.  In  the  third  place,  I  re- 
member that  some  weeks  ago  I  had  been  attracted 
by  the  Burlington  advertisement  in  which  a  book 
about  Colorado  was  offered  for  six  cents.  This 
advertisement  impressed  me,  and  I  gave  it  a  large 
amount  of  attention  or  active  thought  and  so  the 
association  became  vivid  or  intense. 

If  the  merchant  can  make  his  name  or  brand 
to  be  the  habitual,  recent,  and  vivid  associate  with 
his  class  of  goods,  he  will  have  such  a  prestige  over 
all  others  that  his  success  seems  assured.  The 
securing  of  this  result  should  be  one  of  the  aims 
of  the  wise  advertiser. 

V 


; 


46 


IV 

SUGGESTION-  *) 


EVERY  thought  that  we  think  is  probably  accom- 
panied by  its  corresponding  movement,  or  ten- 
dency to  movement.  This  has  been  shown  to 
be  true  in  so  many  instances  that  psychologists 
are  inclined  to  accept  it  as  a  working  hypothesis 
for  all  cases. 

We  do  not  first  think  of  bending  a  finger  and 
then  by  an  exertion  of  the  will,  as  something 
different  from  and  added  to  that  thought,  put 
forth  an  energy  which  ends  by  bending  the  finger. 
The  very  thought  of  bending  the  finger  is  in  itself 
impulsive,  and  will  bend  the  finger,  unless  hin- 
dered by  some  other  contradictory  idea.  The 
very  thought  of  the  action  calls  forth  the  action. 
This  is  technically  known  as  "suggestion."  The 
thought  is  said  to  suggest  the  action.  This  sug- 
gested  action  may  be  in  any  of  our  bodily  organs, 
and  may  be  simple  or  complex.  It  may  be  the  rais- 
ing of  the  hand  or  the  pronouncing  of  a  word.  This 
relationship  has  been  formulated  as  the  Law  of 
Suggestion  in  the  following  terms:  "Every  idea^ 

of  a  function  tends  to  call~tkaLfmic- 
Law  of         -(      '.  .   .  ,     .„  , 

Suggestion  n       °  actimty^  and/  w™  do  so>  un~ 

less  hindered  by  a  competing  idea. 

or  physical  impediment."     This  statement  needs 
elucidation.     Let  the  function  be  the  bending  of 

47 


THE     THEORY    OF    ADVERTISING 

the  first  finger  of  your  right  hand.  Think  of 
bending  that  finger,  concentrate  your  mind  on  it, 
and  behold !  the  finger  is  bent.  You  can  look  at 
your  finger,  think  of  bending  it,  imagine  how  it 
would  feel  to  bend  it,  and  yet  keep  it  straight. 
What  is  the  difference  between  the  two  cases? 
It  seems  to  me  to  be  simply  this :  In  the  second 
case  you  kept  thinking  "not  yet,  no!  keep  it 
straight,"  and  these  negative  thoughts  hindered, 
or  inhibited,  the  movement.  In  the  first  case 
there  was  no  negative,  or  inhibitory,  thought,  so 
the  thought  of  movement  put  itself  into  action 
immediately. 

This  conception  of  the  impulsive  nature  of  the 
mind  —  that  thought  universally  and  necessarily 
suggests  action  —  is  of  such  fundamental  impor- 
tance that  it  is  worth  our  while  to  try  and  make 
it  clear  by  examples.  I  asked  my  class  in  psy- 
chology to  think  of  the  letters  "q,"  "o,"  and  "p" 
successively.  They  were  not  to  pronounce  the 
letters,  but  merely  to  think  of  them.  As  they 
thought  of  these  letters  they  involuntarily  pre- 
pared their  lips  to  pronounce  them,  and  by  watch- 
ing their  lips  I  could  tell  which  one  of  the  letters 
they  were  thinking  of.  Some  of  the  students 
made  no  movements  of  the  lips  which  I  could 
discover,  but  as  most  of  them  did  I  am  almost 
justified  in  supposing  that  all  of  them  made  slight 
movements,  but  my  eye  was  not  keen  enough  to 
detect  them  in  all  cases.  I  believe  that  all  were 

48 


SUGGESTION 


able  to  discover  a  tendency  to  move  the  tongue 
as  they  thought  of  "q."  This  tendency  was 
marked  at  the  base  of  the  tongue,  and  could  be 
noticed  by  all,  if  the  mind  was  held  steadily  upon 
it  for  a  few  seconds. 

I  asked  a  friend  to  think  of  an  object  in  a  dis- 
tant part  of  a  large  house.  He  then  blindfolded 
me,  took  hold  of  my  hand,  and  thought  of  the 
object  and  of  my  going  there.  He  was  directed  to 
think  of  the  object  "hard"  and  constantly.  I 
did  not  know  what  the  object  was  or  where  it  was 
concealed,  but  found  no  trouble  in  going  to  it. 
My  friend  was  much  astonished,  believed  that  it 
was  mind-reading,  and  refused  to  admit  that  he 
had  led  me  all  the  way.  Every  thought  tends  to 
put  itself  into  action.  The  thought  of  a  move- 
ment suggests  that  movement.  My  friend  had 
thought  of  the  action  which  he  must  make  to 
accompany  me  to  the  object.  He  followed  this 
thought  involuntarily,  and  led  me  although  he> 
supposed  that  I  was  leading  him. 

If  I  suspend  my  watch  directly  in  front  of  me 
by  holding  the  end  of  the  chain  with  both  hands, 
I  find  that  the  watch  will  swing  in  the  direction 
of  which  I  am  thinking.  If  I  think  of  it  swing- 
ing in  a  circle,  it  swings  in  a  circle.  If  I  think 
of  it  swinging  from  right  to  left,  and  from  left 
to  right,  it  swings  in  that  manner.  I  try  to 
make  no  movements  with  my  hands,  but  find  it 
impossible  to  keep  from  it  for  any  length  of  time 

49 


THE     THEORY    OF    ADVERTISING 

if  I  concentrate  my  attention  on  the  movement. 
Many  persons  find  that  a  planchette  board  or  an 
ouija  board  will  write  almost  anything  of  which 
they  think,  even  if  they  try  to  keep  the  hand  from 
making  the  movements. 

We  do  that  of  which  we  think.  Thought  has 
influence  over  what  are  ordinarily  supposed  to 
be  involuntary  actions.  I  have  a  friend  who  can 
increase  the  rapidity  of  his  heart-beats  by  merely 
thinking  of  it. 

No  matter  what  the  idea  is,  it  suggests  its  cor- 
responding action.  The  action  may  be  stopped 
by  competing  ideas,  but  the  tendency,  or  incip- 
ient movement,  is  there.  As  I  think  of  moving 
my  finger,  but  repress  the  movement  by  the 
thought  of  "  straight  finger,"  I  notice  that  my 
finger  quivers  and  tingles  with  movement.  If  I 
think  of  the  right,  I  do  the  right.  If  I  think  of 
evil,  I  do  evil.  This  is  the  explanation  of  the 
oft-repeated  quotation, — 

"  Vice  is  a  Vnonster  of  such  frightful  mien 
As  to  be  Hated  needs  but  to  be  seen ; 
But  seen  too  oft,  familiar  with  her  face, 
We  first  endure,  then  pity,  then  embrace." 

We  do  things  simply  because  we  happen  to 
think  of  them.  If  I  should  happen  to  think  of 
pulling  my  own  nose,  I  would  do  it,  unless  the 
action  were  repressed  by  the  contradictory  idea 
of  how  foolish  it  would  be. 


SUGGESTION 


The  only  reason  why  every  thought  does  not 
result  in  completed  action  is  that  we  are  capable 
of  holding  different  lines  of  action  before  us  at 
the  same  time.  We  balance  one  thought  off 
against  another,  and  so  neither  has  the  result 
that  each  would  have  if  left  to  control  the  field 
alone. 

If  we  can  hold  a  thought  before  us  for  but  a 
second,  and  if  this  thought  has  no  rival,  it  is  sure 
to  result  in  action.  What  we  do,  when  we  want 
to  pursue  any  line  of  conduct,  is  to  hold  that 
action  clearly  in  mind  and  dismiss  all  imped- 
ing or  inhibiting  thoughts.  When  we  want  to 
influence  any  one  to  do  a  particular  thing,  we 
try  so  to  present  it  to  Kim  that  it  completely 
fills  his  mind.  We  try  to  get  him  to  think  of 
the  action  without  thinking  of  any  contradictory 
action.  If  we  want  him  to  go  West,  we  can  ac- 
complish the  result  if  we  can  get  him  to  think 
of  going  West  without  having  the  ideas  of  going 
East  or  of  standing  still  arise  in  his  mind  and  check 
action.  If  you  can  get  him  to  think  of  going  to 
Kansas  City  over  the  Chicago  &  Alton,  he  will 
go  to  Kansas  City  over  the  Chicago  &  Alton,  and 
nothing  but  a  competing  idea  or  physical  impedi- 
ment can  stop  him.  If  he  is  so  taken  up  with 
the  idea  of  Chicago  &  Alton  that  the  name  of 
no  other  means  of  transportation  enters  his  mind, 
and  if  he  is  so  situated  that  no  physical  impedi- 
ment (sickness,  lack  of  money,  etc.)  hinders  him, 


THE    THEORY    OF    ADVERTISING 

he  will  start  at  once  to  go  to  the  destination 
thought  of  and  over  the  route  thought  of.  All 
we  can  do  is  to  get  the  thought  into  the  mind  and 
in  an  automatic  manner  the  thought  will  suggest 
the  action. 

We  have  thus  far  discussed  but  one  aspect  of 
suggestion.  We  have  shown  that  actions  are 
suggested.  The  second  aspect  of  the  topic  is 
that  ideas  also  are  suggested.  The  movement 
of  my  finger  has  become  so  firmly  associated  with 
the  actual  movement  that  when  I  think  of  the 
movement  the  actual  movement  is  suggested. 
In  like  manner,  the  thought  of  Oberammergau 
and  Passion  Play  have  become  so  associated  in 
my  mind  that  when  I  think  of  Oberammergau 
the  Passion  Play  is  suggested  immediately.  In 
both  cases,  and  perhaps  in  all  cases,  the  term 
suggestion  carries  with  it  the  thought  that  the 
process  is  rather  of  a  reflex,  involuntary  nature. 
Actions  performed  as  the  result  of  a  conscious, 
deliberate  determination  would  not  be  said  to  be 
suggested.  Ideas  attained  by  a  conscious,  volun- 
tary process  of  reasoning  would  likewise  not  be 
said  to  be  suggested.  Actions  and  ideas  are  sug- 
gested when  they  are  forthcoming,  independent 
of  any  conscious  effort  or  volition  on  our  part. 
We  see  some  one  gaping,  and  immediately  we 
begin  to  gape.  We  are  scarcely  aware  that  we 
have  noticed  the  person  gaping  at  all.  The  idea 
is,  however,  suggested  to  us,  and  this  thought 

52 


SUGGESTION 


in  its  turn  suggests  the  action  and  we  suddenly 
find  ourselves  gaping.  A  suggested  idea  is  taken 
uncritically  and  suggests  its  corresponding  action 
without  the  arousing  of  competing  or  inhibiting 
ideas. 

A  perfect  illustration  of  suggestion  is  found  in 
hypnotism.  (Note  i.)  The  hypnotiser  by  word  or 
sign  suggests  ideas  to  the  subject,  who  accepts 
them  unhesitatingly.  His  mind  is  concentered  on 
that  which  is  suggested  to  him  and,  no  matter 
how  absurd  it  may  be,  it  is  accepted  uncritically 
and  suggests  its  corresponding  actions.  Thus  a 
subject  is  told  that  his  arm  is  describing  a  circle 
and  that  it  will  continue  this  movement  indefi- 
nitely. The  subject  accepts  the  idea  of  "arm 
moving  in  a  circle  indefinitely."  This  thought 
suggests  the  action  and  the  poor  subject  swings 
his  arm,  and  is  unable  to  stop  it  till  the  hypno- 
tizer  suggests  the  idea  of -"arm  at  rest, "  when  it 
stops  as  suddenly  as  it  had  begun. 

Although  the  action  of  suggestion  is  most  evi- 
dent and  complete  in  the  hypnotic  state,  it  is  not 
confined  to  any  abnormal  state  or  states.  It  is  a 
dominating  force  in  all  the  waking  hours  of  the 
day  and  all  the  dreaming  hours  of  the  night.  All 
men  and  probably  all  the  lower  animals  are  sug- 
gestible. The  suggestibility  of  animals  is  clearly 
shown  in  stampedes.  One  animal  becomes  fright- 
ened and  starts  to  escape.  The  others  see  the 
one  fleeing,  and  the  idea  of  flight  and  escaping 

53 


THE    THEORY    OF    ADVERTISING 

from  danger  is  suggested  to  them  by  this  action. 
The  suggestion  is  so  overpowering  that  in  many 
cases  the  most  sedate  and  steady  animals  go  wild 
with  fright.  The  following  account  of  a  stam- 
pede of  Russian  cavalry  is  quoted  from  the  Lon- 
don Times:  "  On  the  second  night  of  the  campaign 
an  unlucky  accident  occurred  ....  A  regiment 
of  the  Empress'  Cuirassiers  of  the  guard,  nine 
hundred  strong  ...  had  arrived  at  their 
cantonments.  One  of  the  squadron  of  horses  be- 
came alarmed,  broke  away,  was  followed  by  the 
next  squadron,  and,  a  panic  seizing  them  all,  in 
one  instant  the  whole  nine  hundred  fled  in  wild 
disorder.  .  .  .  When  I  tell  you  that  some  of 
the  horses  were  not  recovered  till  they  had  gone 
one  hundred  and  twenty  miles  into  Finland,  you 
may  imagine  what  the  panic  was.  The  second 
remarkable  thing  is  the  way  that  some  of  them 
were  stopped.  In  one  solid  mass  they  dashed  on 
for  miles,  and  then  came  directly,  at  right  angles, 
on  a  river.  In  front  of  them  was  a  bridge,  but 
on  the  other  side  of  the  bridge  was  a  sort  of  tete 
de  pont  and  a  small  picket  of  cavalry.  The  horse 
which  led  would  not  face  the  bridge,  seeing  the 
cavalry  at  the  other  end,  but  turned  to  one  side, 
dashed  into  the  stream,  and  the  whole  nine  hun- 
dred horses  swam  the  river  together.  As  they 
emerged  and  flew  wildly  on,  the  commander  of 
the  picket  bethought  him  of  a  ruse,  and  ordered 
the  bugler  to  blow  the  appel.  This  is  always 

54 


SUGGESTION 


blown  when  the  horses  are  going  to  be  fed ;  .  .  . 
all  the  old  horses  pricked  up  their  ears,  wavered, 
stopped,  paused,  turned  round,  and  trotted  back. 
.  .  .  This  severed  the  mass  ....  the  rest  was 
broken  up." 

If  anything  could  be  more  ludicrous  and  yet 

more  awful  than  such  a  stampede  among  dumb 

brutes,    it    is    a   stampede    among 

Social          intelligent     business    men,     when 

Suggestion  making  a  run  on  a  bank.  A  few 
men  start  to  draw  out  their  money, 
the  report  spreads,  and  others  follow  the  example. 
At  first  the  fear  is  but  slight,  but  it  is  of  the  accu- 
mulative  sort,  for  each  person  suggests  the  fear 
to  each  other.  Each  tries  to  get  ahead  of  the 
other  in  taking  out  his  deposit.  Jamming  and 
crowding  tends  but  to  increase  the  fear,  until  the 
steady  men  are  changed  to  creatures  not  so  much 
unlike  the  panic-stricken  horses.  In  the  midst 
of  this  excitement  some  wealthy  gentleman  is  seen 
depositing  his  money.  ^  Thereupon  the  idea  of 
security  instead  of  fright  has  a  chance  to  be  sug- 
gested. The  attention  is  turned  for  a  moment 
from  the  crowd  struggling  after  their  money  to 
the  depositor,  and  this  moment  is  sufficient  to 
turn  the  tide.  They  suddenly  realize  that  their 
money  is  safe  and  that  they  can  get  it  whenever 
they  want  it,  so  are  perfectly  content  to  have  it 
remain  in  the  bank. 

An  extreme  case  of  social  suggestion  is  reported 
55 


THE     THEORY    OF    ADVERTISING 

by  Sidis:  "About  the  year  1634  the  Dutch  be- 
came suddenly  possessed  with  a  mania  for  tulips. 
The  ordinary  industry  of  the  country  was 
neglected,  and  the  population,  even  to  the  lowest 
dregs,  embarked  in  the  tulip  trade.  The  tulip 
rapidly  rose  in  value,  and  when  the  mania  was 
in  full  swing  some  daring  speculators  invested  as 
much  as  one  hundred  thousand  florins  in  the 
purchase  of  forty  roots.  The  bulbs  were  as  pre- 
cious as  diamonds;  they  were  sold  by  their  weight 
in  perits,  a  weight  less  than  a  grain. 

"  An  insane  mania  of  speculation  in  tulips  seized 
upon  the  minds  of  the  Dutch.  Regular  marts 
for  the  sale  of  roots  were  established  in  all  the 
large  towns  of  Holland  —  in  Amsterdam,  Rotter- 
dam, Haarlem,  Leyden,  Alkmar.  The  stock 
jobbers  dealt  largely  in  tulips,  and  their  profits 
were  enormous.  The  epidemic  of  tulipomania 
raged  with  intense  fury,  the  enthusiam  of  spec- 
ulation filled  every  heart,  and  confidence  was  at 
its  height.  A  golden  bait  hung  temptingly  out 
before  the  people,  and  one  after  the  other  they 
rushed  to  the  tulip  markets,  like  flies  around 
a  honey  pot.  Every  one  imagined  that  the  pas- 
sion for  tulips  would  last  forever,  and  that  the 
wealthy  from  every  part  of  the  world  would  send 
to  Holland  and  pay  whatever  prices  were  asked 
for  them.  The  riches  of  Europe  would  be  con- 
centrated on  the  shores  of  Zuyder  Zee.  Nobles, 
citizens,  farmers,  mechanics,  seamen,  footmen, 

56 


SUGGESTION 


maid  servants,  chimney  sweeps,  and  old-clothes 
women  dabbled  in  tulips.  Houses  and  lands  were 
offered  for  sale  at  ruinously  low  prices,  or  as- 
signed in  payment  for  bargains  made  in  the  tulip 
market.  So  contagious  was  the  epidemic  that 
foreigners  became  smitten  with  the  same  frenzy  and 
money  poured  into  Holland  from  all  directions. 

"This  speculative  mania  did  not  last  long; 
social  suggestion  began  to  work  in  the  opposite 
direction,  and  a  universal  panic  suddenly  seized 
on  the  minds  of  the  Dutch.  Instead  of  buying, 
every  one  was  trying  to  sell.  Tulips  fell  below 
their  normal  value.  Thousands  of  merchants 
were  utterly  ruined,  and  a  cry  of  lamentation 
arose  in  the  land." 

There  is  an  oft-told  tale  of  a  mother  who,  up- 
on leaving  her  children,  warned  them  that,  what- 
ever they  did,  they  should  not  put  beans  in  their 
noses.  When  the  mother  returned  she  was  much 
surprised  to  find  all  their  noses  full  of  beans. 
They  never  would  have  thought  of  such  a  thing 
had  the  mother  not  suggested  it.  The  thought 
of  "beans  in  the  nose"  haunted  them,  and  the 
thought  led  to  its  appropriate  action. 

We  do  things  that  we  don't  want  to,  simply 
because  the  thought  of  it  has  been  suggested  to 
us,  and  we  feel  compelled  to  carry  it  out.  As  one 
stands  on  a  tower  at  a  great  height,  or  near  to  a 
rapidly  moving  train,  the  thought  comes  to  one 
of  how  awful  it  would  be  to  fall  from  the  building 

57 


THE     THEORY    OF    ADVERTISING 

or  to  get  under  the  wheels  of  the  moving  train. 
The  thought  is  suggested  by  the  awfulness  of  the 
situation.  Many  people  find  that  under  these 
circumstances  they  have  an  almost  irresistible 
impulse  to  spring  from  the  tower  or  under  the 
wheels  of  the  train.  The  idea  "  falling  from  this 
great  height"  or  "getting  under  the  wheels  of  the 
train ' '  possesses  them  for  the  time  and  by  sugges- 
tion calls  forth  the  action  thought  of. 

The  suggested  action  may  be  of  a  criminal 
nature  and  yet  it  seems  that  under  certain  cir- 
cumstances it  is  irresistible.  We  have  all  noticed 
that,  if  any  crime  is  widely  discussed  in  the  papers, 
there  is  likely  to  be  a  whole  harvest  of  similar 
crimes.  This  tendency  has  been  noticed,  and  is 
greatly  feared  by  all  right-minded  people.  It 
seems,  however,  that  the  real  nature  of  the  fact 
is  not  understood.  The  kidnapping  of  Edward 
Cudahy  was  published  all  over  the  country.  It 
was  not  infrequently  remarked  that  the  crime 
should  not  be  published,  because  it  had  been  so 
profitable  that  many  would  be  influenced  by  the 
profitableness,  and  attempt  to  repeat  it.  If  I  am 
not  mistaken,  the  harvest  of  kidnapping  has  not 
been  as  great  as  was  expected.  The  cases  that 
have  been  brought  to  light  have  been  committed 
not  because  the  criminal  reasoned  it  out  and  con- 
cluded that  because  some  one  else  had  been  suc- 
cessful, he  would  be  successful  too;  but  rather  it 
was  done  simply  because  the  thought  of  kidnap- 

58 


SUGGESTION 


ping  was  suggested,  and  the  suggestion  of  almost 
any  hideous  or  unsuccessful  crime  would  have 
had  as  great  a  harvest. 

The  reason  for  the  extreme  working  of  sugges- 
tion in  the  examples  given  is  apparent  in  -each 
case.  In  the  stampede  each  horse  suggested  the 
idea  of  fright  to  every  other  horse,  so  each  one 
received  the  suggestion  of  fright  from  every  other 
one.  The  suggestion  was  so  all-pervading  that 
no  inhibiting  idea  had  a  chance  to  enter  the  mind. 
There  was  really  no  reason  for  the  fright,  and  when 
the  bugle  sounded  the  older  horses  received  the 
suggestion  of  "  assembling  for  food. "  This  latter 
thought,  having  once  entered  the  mind  of  the 
horses,  displaced  the  idea  of  flight,  and  so  saved 
some  of  them  from  the  panic. 

When  the  tulip  mania  invaded  Holland,  the 
suggestion  to  invest  in  tulips  was  given  by  every 
one.  Every  one's  friends  and  acquaintances  were 
buying  tulips.  "Buy  tulips"  was  heard  in  the 
home,  read  in  the  papers,  cried  in  the  market 
place,  and  acted  upon  by  people  everywhere. 
The  thought  was  "in  the  air,"  and  infected  every 
citizen  of  the  nation.  Other  and  inhibiting, 
thoughts  were  kept  out  of  the  mind  and  this  one 
ruled  the  field  alone. 

Man  has  been  called  the  reasoning  animal, 
but  he  could  with  greater  truthfulness  be  called 
the  creature  of  suggestion.  He  is  reasonable,  but 
he  is  to  a  greater  extent  suggestible. 

59 


THE     THEORY    OF    ADVERTISING 

The  advertiser  must  deal  with  man  as  he  is  and 
not  with  some  ideal  being.  If  man  is  subject  to 
reason  and  also  to  suggestion,  we  must  recognize 
the  fact  and  adapt  our  argument  to  each  side  of 
his  nature  or  to  that  side  which  will  best  suit  our 
purpose.  If  men  are  reasonable  and  are  induced 
to  act  after  careful  consideration  of  arguments, 
then  we  must  give  attention  to  the  formation  of 
cogent  arguments.  If  men  are  suggestible,  we 
must  give  the  suggestions  to  action  by  illustra- 
tions, affirmations,  repetitions,  and  direct  com- 
mands, or  by  any  other  means  which  wisdom 
and  experience  may  discover. 

NOTE  i.  — HYPNOTISM. 

The  word  "hypnotism"  is  derived  from  the  Greek 
word  meaning  sleep,  and  is  to  be  regarded  as  indicat- 
ing an  artificially  produced  sleep;  In  a  normal  sleep 
we  can  dream,  awaken  at  a  given  signal,  and  even  walk 
or  carry  on  a  conversation.  In  artificially  produced 
sleep,  which  is  called  hypnotism,  we  do  similar  things. 
If,  when  asleep,  the  bedclothes  fall  off  me,  I  dream 
that  I  am  in  a  snowstorm.  If,  when  under  artificial 
sleep,  the  hypnotizer  tells  me  that  I  am  cold,  I  believe 
it,  and  begin  to  shiver.  In  the  natural  sleep  the  sug- 
gestion of  cold  was  given  by  the  temperature  of  the 
room.  In  the  artificial  sleep  the  suggestion  was  given 
by  the  word  of  the  hypnotizer.  One  is  as  wonderful 
as  the  other  and  no  more  so.  The  word  "hypnotism" 
as  used  in  the  preceding  article  is  to  be  thought  of  as 
freed  from  all  idea  of  anything  mysterious,  uncanny,  or 
peculiar.  It  is  probable  that  every  right-minded 
person  can  both  be  hypnotized  and  hypnotize  others 

60 


SUGGESTION 


but  it  is  quite  certain  that  people  cannot  be  hypnotized 
against  their  will.  In  explaining  the  working  of  hyp- 
notism it  is  not  necessary  to  assume  the  introduction 
of  any  new  sense,  power,  or  faculty.  There  is  no 
unconscious  or  unusual  impartation  of  knowledge  or 
power  from  the  hypnotizer  to  the  subject.  The  subject 
receives  all  the  suggestions  through  the  sense  of  sight, 
or  some  one  or  more  of  the  senses,  and  in  a  perfectly 
normal  manner. 

A  few  centuries  ago  quacks  and  fakirs  used  dreams 
as  a  form  of  divination,  which  they  called  oneiromancy, 
Dreams  were  then  supposed  to  be  something  so  mys- 
terious and  ominous  that  it  would  have  been  almost 
impossible  for  a  man  to  speak  of  dreams  without  being 
misunderstood,  unless  he  conformed  to  the  prevailing 
view.  In  a  similar  manner  it  is  almost  impossible  to 
speak  of  hypnotism  without  being  misunderstood.  The 
difference  between  dreams  (as  understood  to-day)  and 
oneiromancy  is  not  greater  than  the  difference  between 
hypnotism  as  understood  by  the  man  of  science  and 
as  understood  by  the  charlatan. 

A  satisfactory  discussion  of  hypnotism  may  be  found 
in  the  following  references: 

The  Nation,  New  York,  July  28  and  August  n,  1892. 

"  Hypnotism,"  Johnson's  Universal  Encyclopedia, 
1894. 

Science,  February  27,  1891. 

H.  Bernheim,  "Suggestive  Therapeutics,"  1899. 

J.  Mark  Baldwin,  "Mental  Development"  (pages 
104-169),  1895. 

Albert  Moll,  "Hypnotism,"  1890. 


61 


V 

THE     DIRECT     COMMAND 

" SIMON  says  thumbs  up"  used  to  be  a  favor- 
ite game  with  children.  In  this  game  one  person 
is  "it.'*  He  turns  his  thumbs 
p  up  and  calls  out,  "Simon  says, 

'Thumbs  up!'"  At  this  com- 
mand all  must  obey  and  turn  thumbs  up.  The 
one  who  is  "it"  next  calls  out,  "Simon  says, 
'Thumbs  down!'  This  is  the  signal  for  all 
to  turn  the  thumbs  down.  If,  however,  the 
one  who  is  "it"  fails  to  say  "Simon  says," 
he  must  not  be  obeyed,  and  the  one  who  does 
obey  becomes  "it"  himself.  "Simon  says"  is 
the  reason  for  obedience,  but  obedience  under 
any  other  condition  is,  in  a  mild  way,  punish- 
able. Those  of  us  who  have  played  the  game 
remember  that  it  was  impossible  for  us  not  to 
obey  the  command,  even  when  the  "Simon 
says"  was  left  out.  We  were  commanded  to 
turn  our  thumbs  up  or  down,  as  the  case  might 
be,  and  we  obeyed  before  we  thought  whether 
the  reason  for  obeying,  namely,  "Simon  says," 
was  given  or  not. 

When  in  our  early  "teens,"  my  brother  and  I 
slept  in  a  room  which  was  not  heated.  One  cold 
winter  night  my  brother  went  to  bed  first,  suc- 
ceeded in  warming  his  side  of  the  bed,  and  went 

62 


THE        DIRECT        COMMAND 

to  sleep.  About  an  hour  afterward,  I  came  to 
bed  and  was  appreciating  the  fact  that  the  tem- 
perature of  the  room  was  below  zero,  when  the 
thought  struck  me  to  play  a  trick  on  my  brother. 
I  merely  said,  "John,  get  over  on  the  other  side 
of  the  bed."  He  obeyed  immediately  and  rolled 
over  to  the  cold  side  of  the  bed.  I  began  to 
laugh  and  John  awoke.  It  is  needless  to  say 
what  happened.  He  knew  that  he  had  obeyed 
me  and  had  done  what  he  did  not  want  to  do, 
and  the  very  thought  angered  him. 

When  a  person  is  being  hypnotized  and  is  told 
that  he  cannot  and  must  not  open  his  eyes,  he 
frequently  struggles  against  the  suggestion,  but 
at  last  succumbs  to  it.  Certain  persons  are  so 
refractory  that  they  struggle  till  they  ' '  awaken ' ' 
themselves,  unless  they  are  well  under  the  control 
of  the  hypnotist.  All  persons,  in  all  stages  of 
hypnosis,  obey  the  commands  of  the  hypnotist, 
or  are  compelled  to  struggle  to  keep  from  it.  The 
natural  and  easy  thing  for  them  to  do  is  to  obey ; 
the  unnatural  and  difficult  thing  is  to  keep  from 
obeying. 

The  school-teacher  commands  a  room  full  of 
mischievous  children  and  they  obey  her,  although 
she  could  not  convince  them  with  reason  or  com- 
pel them  with  force.  They  obey  simply  because 
they  are  commanded. 

The  demagogue  uses  more  than  flattery,  threats 
and  bribes ;  he  commands  his  followers  absolutely 

63 


THE    THEORY    OF    ADVERTISING 

as  to  what  they  shall  do  and  what  they  shall  not 
do.  He  not  only  says,  "Smith  is  your  friend 
and  Jones  your  enemy,"  but  he  gives  the  com- 
mand, "Vote  for  Smith." 

When  certain  commands  have  been  obeyed 
habitually,  they  attain  such  a  power  over  our 
wills  that  we  can  scarcely  keep  from  obeying. 
"  There  is  a  story,"  says  Professor  Huxley,  "  which 
is  credible  enough,  though  it  may  not  be  true,  of. 
a  practical  joker  who,  seeing  a  discharged  veteran 
carrying  home  his  dinner,  suddenly  called  out, 
'  Attention ! '  whereupon  the  man  instantly  brought 
his  hands  down,  and  lost  his  mutton  and  pota- 
toes in  the  gutter." 

This  soldier  had  obeyed  the  command  until 
obedience  had  become  almost  automatic.  He 
obeyed  immediately  and  without  any  considera- 
tion whatever. 

In  the  game  alluded  to  ("  Simon  says  '  thumbs 
up'  "),  in  sleep,  in  hypnotism,  and  in  the  cases 
of  the  teacher,  the  demagogue,  and  the  soldier, 
we  have  extreme  cases.  Here  the  force  of  the 
command  is  so  overpowering  that  obedience  is 
involuntary.  These  illustrations  are  useful  in 
indicating  the  real  nature  of  a  command,  and  in 
showing  how  effective  it  may  be  when  not  hin- 
dered by  competing  thoughts.  Although  com- 
mands do  not  ordinarily  secure  involuntary 
obedience,  there  is  a  strong  tendency  in  us  all  to 
obey  them.  We  have  probably  all  felt  ashamed 

64 


THE        DIRECT        COMMAND 

of  ourselves  for  obeying  and  doing  things  merely 
because  we  were  commanded  to  do  so.     Stub- 
bornness is  the  exception  and  obedience  the  rule. 
It  often  happens  that  those  things  which  are 
apparently  the  most  simple  are,  in  fact,  the  most 
difficult    to     comprehend.      What 

could   be    more    simple    than    the 

Analyzed  .  .  f 

raising  of  your  hand  or  the  turn- 
ing of  your  head?  If  you  attempt  to  analyze 
the  process  involved  in  the  simplest  movement 
you  find  that  it  is  too  difficult  for  your  compre- 
hension. We  do  know  something  of  the  psy- 
chology of  movement,  but  much  is  yet  to  be  found 
out  about  it.  When  I  want  to  raise  my  hand,  I 
do  not  say,  "Hand,  come  up!"  but  I  know  of  no 
way  to  express  what  goes  on  in  my  mind  better 
than  that.  I  do  think  of  the  movement  and  there 
is  in  the  thought  itself  something  akin  to  a  com- 
mand. When  I  turn  my  thumbs  up,  I  think  of 
my  thumbs  turning  up,  and  the  thought  is  the 
command  which  I  give  to  my  thumbs  and  which 
they  obey.  If  the  thought  is  not  hindered  by  a 
competing  thought,  —  if  it  is  allowed  to  take  its 
own  course,  —  it  will  be  effective  in  raising  the 
thumbs. 

In  a  direct  command  one  person  originates  the 
thought  and  suggests  it  to  another  person.  Thus  in 
"  Simon  says  '  thumbs  up,'  "  I  suggest  the  thought 
of  "  thumbs  up  "  to  another  person.  The  thought 
of  "thumbs  up"  enters  his  mind  —  is  suggested 

65 


THE    THEORY    OF    ADVERTISING 

to  him,  —  and  unless  he  hinders  the  action  of  the 
thought  it  will  be  obeyed,  and  up  will  come  his 

thumbs.     One    advantage    of    the 
Advantages        ,.  -  .    ,,    ,  ? 

.  ._.  direct  command  is  that  it  suggests 

Command  a  t^louSnt  m  sucn  a  waY  that  it 
will  bring  forth  the  action  sug- 
gested unless  hindered  by  a  previous  suggestion 
or  by  an  action  originated  by  the  person  himself. 
It  is,  of  course,  true  that  many  actions  are  sug- 
gested which  are  not  carried  out,  because  the 
impelling  power  of  the  thought  is  not  sufficiently 
strong.  The  impelling  power  of  a  thought  is  in 
direct  proportion  to  the  amount  of  attention  which 
it  secures ;  and  so  the  impelling  power  of  a  com- 
mand is  also  in  direct  proportion  to  the  amount 
of  attention  which  it  receives.  If  a  direct  com- 
mand could  occupy  the  attention  completely, 
it  would  be  the  best  possible  form  of  argumenta- 
tion, because  it  puts  the  thought  in  such  a  shape 
that  its  impelling  nature  will  secure  the  desired 
results.  The  command  relieves  the  one  commanded 
from  the  trouble  of  making  up  his  mind.  It 
makes  up  his  mind  for  him,  and  so  makes  action 
easy. 

A  command  is  a  direct  suggestion,  and  as  such 
has  inherent  value.  It  is  the  shortest  and  sim- 
plest form  of  language,  and  is  the  easiest  to  be 
understood.  It  bears  with  it  authority  and 
weight  by  expressing  action  explicitly  and  dis- 
tinctly. It  calls  for  immediate  action  and  meets 

66 


THE        DIRECT        COMMAND 

with   ready   response.     Mankind   as   a   whole   is 
influenced  more  by  commands  than  by  logical 
processes  of  thought,   for,   as  previously  stated, 
we  are  suggestible  rather  than  reasonable.     The 
command,  if  not  obtrusive,  is  of  such  a  nature 
that  it  has  its  legitimate  uses  in  advertisements 
and  should  not  be  discarded,  as  has  been  recently 
asserted.     We  are  not  only  suggestible  and  obe- 
dient, but  we   are   also   obstreperous,   obstinate, 
stubborn,  and  self-willed.    We  delight  in  following 
*our  own  sweet  wills  and  object  to  having  any  one 
dictate  to  us.     There  must,  then,  be  certain  lim- 
itations put   on  the  use   of  com- 
mands.    They  must  be  used  with 
Necessary  1     ,. 

such  discretion  that  they  do  not 

arouse  opposition;  otherwise  we  would  refuse 
obedience,  even  if  it  were  to  our  best  interests  to 
obey. 

Although  we  do  obey  commands,  we  are  un- 
willing to  admit  it.  We  like  to  think  of  ourselves 
as  independent  beings,  who  act  only  because  it  is 
the  reasonable  thing  to  do  and  because  we  want 
to.  It  is  very  difficult  for  us  to  analyze  our 
actions  and  to  give  the  motives  which  have 
prompted  us  to  do  many  of  the  things  that  we 
have  done.  We  act  from  habit,  imitation,  insuffi- 
cient reason,  or  because  the  idea  of  the  action  has 
been  suggested.  It  is  but  rarely  that  the  ordi- 
nary person  weighs  all  the  evidence  before  he 
acts.  After  he  has  acted,  he  may  think  over  the 

67 


THE     THEORY    OF    ADVERTISING 

motives  which  might  have  prompted  him,  and 
may  even  deceive  himself  into  thinking  that  he 
acted  because  he  had  weighed  the  evidence,  when, 
in  fact,  no  such  motives  entered  his  mind  at  the 
time  of  action. 

I  have  frequently  suggested  to  persons  that 
they  shoald  do  a  certain  thing.  At  the  time 
they  have  refused  to  do  it.  The  idea  was,  how- 
ever, implanted  in  their  minds.  Later  they  have 
done  exactly  what  I  had  previously  suggested. 
They  had  forgotten  who  had  suggested  the  idea, 
but  the  idea  itself  was  retained,  so  they  were  per- 
fectly honest  in  supposing  that  they  had  origi- 
nated the  thought,  and  that  they  had  performed 
the  deed  independently.  No  one  would  be  willing 
to  admit  that  he  had  used  Pears'  Soap  simply 
because  he  had  read  the  command,  "Use  Pears' 
Soap."  It  is,  however,  quite  probable  that  many 
persons  have  used  Pears'  Soap  for  no  other  reason. 
The  idea  of  using  the  soap  was  suggested  to  them 
in  that  form.  They  afterward  forgot  where  they 
had  received  the  thought,  and  believed  they  had 
originated  it  themselves. 

I  We  are  perfectly  willing  to  obey  as  long  as  we 
are  unconscious  of  the  fact.  But  let  any  one  see 
that  he  has  been  commanded  and  his  attitude 
is  changed;  he  becomes  obstinate  instead  of 
pliant.  Every  wise  leader  of  men  recognizes 
this  fact.  He  does  not  cease  to  command,  but 
he  covers  his  commands  in  such  a  way  that  each 

68 


THE        DIRECT        COMMAND 

one  thinks  that  he  is  doing  just  what  he  wants 
to,  and  that  he  is  not  following  commands  at  all. 
The  correct  wording  of  the  command  is  a  mat- 
ter of    importance,   yet    it    is  diffi- 
Choice  of          ^ 

cult     to    formulate    any    rules     or 
Words  .  * 

principles  to  guide  us  here.      Such 

an  expression  as  "Use  Pears'  Soap"  is  not  as 
suggestive  as  "  Let  the  Gold  Dust  twins  do  your 
work."  The  first  is  a  bald  command  and  as 
such  has  a  certain  value,  but  the  second  has  the 
added  value  of  supplying,  or  implying,  a  reason 
for  obedience.  It  is  implied  that  the  Gold  Dust 
twins  will  save  you  labor,  and  so  the  command 
is  supplemented  by  an  appeal  to  a  personal 
interest. 

Furthermore,  this  latter  command  is  worded 
in  such  a  way  that  it  is  hardly  recognized  as  a 
command  at  all,  and  so  would  not  beget  opposi- 
tion on  the  part  of  any  one.  As  a  further  proof 
of  the  importance,  but  difficulty,  of  clothing  the 
command  in  the  best  possible  form,  take  the 
"  catch  -lines"  of  four  advertisements  of  adver- 
tising schools  as  they  appear  in  the  magazines, 
which  are  reproduced  upon  the  following  page: 

The  first,  "  Be  an  ad-writer,  "  is  short,  but  rather 
bald  and  indefinite.  The  second,  "  Learn  to  be 
an  ad -writer, ' '  suggests  that  I  should  become  some- 
thing, and  implies  that,  by  a  process  of  learning 
in  connection  with  their  school,  this  end  could  be 
attained.  The  third,  "Learn  to  write  adver- 


THE    THEORY    OF    ADVERTISING 


|ge  an  Ad-Writer\ 

Learn  to  be  an  Ad  Writer 


LEARN  TO  WRITE 
ADVERTISEMENTS 


Advertising  WrmngTaught 


No.  i 

tisements, "  suggests  that  I  should  learn  to  do 
something,  and  implies  that  I  could  learn  this 
by  a  course  of  instruction  at  their  school.  Per- 
sonally, learning  to  do  seems  more  definite  than 
learning  to  become,  but  it  is  quite  possible  that 
it  would  impress  others  differently.  The  fourth, 
"Advertising  writing  taught,"  is  not  a  command, 
and  seems  to  me  to  be  much  inferior  to  the  pre- 
ceding ones.  It  supplies  me  with  certain  infor- 
mation, but  does  not  help  me  to  make  up  my 
mind  to  take  the  course  at  their  school.  It  in- 
forms me  of  the  fact  that  they  teach  advertising, 
but  has  nothing  to  say  about  action  on  my  part. 
To  have  action  in  another  person  suggested  is 
not  so  impressive  as  it  is  to  have  my  own  action,  or 
action  on  my  part,  suggested.  The  direct  per- 

70 


THE        DIRECT        COMMAND 

sonal  element  is  lacking  in  the  last,  which  is  pres- 
ent in  the  first  three. 

A  further  criticism  might  be  made  of  the  first 
two  headlines,  in  that  they  have  made  use  of  the 
expression  "ad,"  which  is  a  technical  term,  and 
would  not  be  understood  by  certain  persons  who 
rnight  be  appealed  to  by  the  term  when  written 
out  in  full. 

As  the  young  man  reads  over  these  four  dis- 
plays his  attention  will  certainly  be  drawn  more 
forcibly  by  the  first  three  than  by  the  last  one. 
It  might  be  questionable,  however,  which  one  of 
the  first  three  would  appeal  most  to  him.  "  Learn 
to  write  advertisements"  appeals  to  me  most 
strongly,  and  would  probably  appeal  to  more 
persons  than  any  of  the  others. 

The  value  of  the  form  of  expression  in  the  head- 
lines is  clearly  seen  when  we  read  over  the  com- 
mands which  were  used  as  display  in  Success 
for  March,  1902.  Some  are  good  and  some  are 
poor,  as  will  be  recognized  by  every  one  who  reads 
the  list.  Taking  them  in  the  order  in  which  they 
appeared,  they  are  the  following: 

"  Learn  to  write  advertisements." 

"  Exercise  at  home." 

"  Make  your  own  lace." 

''Learn  bookkeeping." 

"  Be  your  own  boss." 

"  Deal  direct  with  the  maker." 

"  Send  no  money." 


THE     THEORY    OF    A DVERTISING 

"  Furnish  your  house." 

"Stop  stammering." 

"  Learn  telegraphy  at  home." 

"Learn  engraving." 

"Be  an  ad -writer." 

"  Learn  in  three  months." 

"Study  law." 

"  Learn  bookkeeping." 

"  Learn  the  art  science  of  photography." 

11  Learn  the  best  shorthand." 

"  Study  law  at  home." 

"  Study  medicine  at  home." 

"Let  us  start  you." 

"  Learn  proofreading." 

"  Be  a  writer." 

"  Be  a  trained  nurse." 

"  Save  rewriting." 

"Teach  yourself  music." 

"Do  not  stammer." 

"Don't  shout." 

"Learn  bookkeeping." 

"  Learn  to  be  an  ad-writer." 

"  Get  away  from  clerical  drudgery." 

"Let  the  Gold  Dust  Twins  do  your  work." 

"Simply  press  this." 

"Don't  set  hens." 

"  Sleep  on  it  thirty  nights  free." 

As  we  see  from  the  examples  given  above,  the 
value  of  a  command  is  dependent  upon  the  way 
in  which  it  is  expressed. 

72 


THE        DIRECT        COMMAND 

Another  factor  of  even  greater  importance  than 
the  verbal  expression  is  the  personality  of  the  one 

giving  the  command.     The  spoken 
Commands  -,  •         r         11      , 1 

command  is  enforced  by  the  person- 

~  ality  of  the  speaker  to  an  extent  im- 

Commanders  J 

^  possible  in  written  commands,    ihe 

difference  is,  however,  not  so  great  as  might  be 
supposed.  Van  Dyke  expressed  a  truth  when 
he  said,  "Help  me  to  deal  very  honestly  with 
words  and  people,  for  they  are  both  alive." 
The  person  who  can  move  men  by  spoken  words 
can  move  them  with  written  words.  This  is  so 
true  that  many  have  prophesied  that  the  press 
would  render  the  preacher  and  the  orator  useless. 
The  printed  page  is  a  living  force  which  is  more 
appreciated  to-day  than  ever  before.  There  are 
men  who  are  obeyed  whether  they  speak  or 
write,  whether  they  are  at  the  head  of  a  regiment 
or  in  the  privacy  of  their  own  homes,  whether 
they  are  addressing  their  employees  in  person  or 
presenting  certain  lines  of  action  to  the  public 
by  means  of  printed  advertisements.  Certain 
persons  can  command  us  and  we  obey  readily,  but 
if  the  same  commands  were  given  by  other  per- 
sons, we  would  regard  it  as  presumptuous  and 
refuse  obedience.  A  firm  that  is  just  beginning 
its  first  advertising  campaign  does' not  secure  as 
much  attention  to  its  advertisements  as  the  older 
firms.  Furthermore,  reliable  firms  which  are 
well  established  and  well  known  through  adver- 

73 


THE    THEORY    OF    ADVERTISING 

tising  could  give  commands  with  impunity  which 
would  injure  a  new  or  unknown  firm. 

Persons  who  are  used  to  obeying  take  obe- 
dience as  a  matter  of  course  and  obey  almost 
from  second  nature  or  instinct.  Those  who  are 
not  used  to  being  commanded  are  more  inclined 
to  resent  the  attempt  and  so  refuse  to  obey,  even 
if  the  command  is  in  accord  with  their  interests, 
and  if  they  had  at  first  been  at  the  very  point  of 
obeying.  A  form  of  expression  which  would 
prove  highly  successful  with  one  class  of  society 
might  fail  with  another  class.  Commands  would 
have  a  greater  efficiency  in  cheap  than  in  higher- 
priced  periodicals,  because  the  poorer  classes  are 
more  in  the  habit  of  obeying  commands.  They 
are  more  in  the  habit  of  doing  things  that  are 
directly  suggested  to  them.  All  classes  of  society 
are  moved  by  a  direct  command  if  it  is  properly 
worded,  and  if  it  appears  in  their  favorite  or  most 
highly  appreciated  publication. 

The  function  of  the  direct  command  in  ad- 
vertisements is  twofold  —  to  attract  attention  and 
to  beget  immediate  action. 

There  is  nothing  which  attracts  the  attention 
so  much  as  movement  or  action. 

When    we    want    to    attract    the 
Attention 

attention  of  a  friend,  we  wave  to 

him  instinctively.  We  know  that  he  will  see  the 
wave  of  the  hand  or  of  the  handkerchief  when  he 
would  not  notice  us  at  all  apart  from  such  move- 

74 


THE        DIRECT        COMM  AND 

merits.  Our  eyes  are  so  constructed  that  we  can 
distinguish  a  movement  of  an  obiect  before  we 
are  able  to  distinguish  the  object  itself.  Move- 
ments please  and  attract  us  in  whatever  form 
they  may  be  presented.  A  shop  window  that 
has  in  it  a  live  animal  or  anything  else  that  moves 
will  attract  the  attention  of  the  pedestrian  as 
he  passes  by.  A  command  ordinarily  calls  for 
action.  As  we  read  a  command  we  think  of  th( 
action  suggested  and  it  attracts  our  attention  i: 
much  the  same  way  that  actual  movements  do.) 
In  the  first  case  we  see  with  the  imagination  what 
we  see  in  the  second  case  with  the  sense  of  sight. 
A  command  in  good  display  type  at  the  begin- 
ning of  an  advertisement  may  express  in  a  few 
words  the  intent  of  the  entire  advertisement. 
It  expresses  it  in  such  a  living,  moving  manner 
that  it  attracts  our  attention  and  makes  us  feel 
in  sympathy  with  it,  so  that  we  feel  like  doing 
what  is  suggested  at  once.  This  tendency  to 
action  on  our  part  brings  us  into  sympathetic, 
personal  relation  with  the  advertisement,  and 
so  gets  us  interested  enough  in  the  advertise- 
ment to  start  us  to  reading  it.  The  argument 
should  be  so  constructed  that  it  brings  us  into 
closer  relationship  with  the  proposition  offered. 
It  should  take  us  into  the  confidence  of  the  firm 
and  make  us  feel  that  the  firm  back  of  the  adver- 
tisement can  be  trusted.  We  then  feel  in  sym- 
pathy with  the  offer  made  by  the  firm,  our  self- 

75 


THE     THEORY    OF    ADVERTISING 

will  is  suspended,  and  we  are  in  a  condition  to  do 
what  is  suggested.  The  argument  may  have  been 
extensive,  the  illustrations  may  have  been  inter- 
esting and  suggestive,  but  now  what  is  wanted 
is  immediate  action.  The  advertisement  should 
focus  at  this  point.  An  attempt  should  be  made 
to  hold  our  attention  to  what  is  desired  of  us. 
The  value  of  a  direct  command  at  this  point  should 
not  be  overlooked,  as  it  expresses  in  a  few  words 
and  in  living  form  all  that  the  advertisement 
has  desired  to  bring  about.  It  sums  up  the  entire 
argument  and  puts  it  before  us  in  the  form  of  a 
direct  suggestion  to  action. 

Outdoor  advertising  must  of  necessity  be  very 
brief  and  very  suggestive.  There  is  no  oppor- 
tunity  to  present  extensive  arguments,  yet  some- 
thing must  be  done  to  attract  attention  and  to 
beget  immediate  action.  Direct  affirmation  as 
to  the  value  of  the  goods  offered  may,  in  general, 
be  the  most  effective  form  of  expression,  but  the 
direct  command  could  be  used  with  profit  be- 
cause of  its  superior  value  in  attracting  atten- 
tion and  in  begetting  immediate  action. 


The  above  chapter  on  '  'The  Direct  Command" 
as  a  form  of  argumentation  appeared  in  substan- 
tially the  present  form  in  Makings  Magazine. 
Soon  after  its  publication  the  Editor  received  a 
letter  from  the  Franklin  Mills  Company,  saying 

76 


THE        DIRECT        COMMAND 

that  they  were  going  "to  try  out  the  theory"  in 
their  advertising.  Some  time  later  the  following 
letter  was  received,  stating  the  results  of  their 
experiment  with  the  advertisement  reproduced 
herewith  (No.  2) : 


and  wri 
fora 

.Sample  of 


It  will  cost  you  but  three  two  cent  stamps  anJ  you 
grocer's  name  to  receive  full  half  pound  sample  of 


WHEATLET 


and  know  why  it  is  the  very  best  cereal  food  you  can  possibly  eat. 
ELBERT  HUBBARD,  Editor  of  7*<-  Pkilitti»t.  says  :— 

••Y<Hi  will  see  this  Ufue  is  a  'hot'  number,  all  being  written  r.n  ;i 
KitU-t  dirt.  In  fjtt.  I  luve  never  been  so  doosed  clever  in  my  liter.iry 
k  as  since  I  tackled  Wheatlet." 

(TeH  us  the  misrtlled  word  in  Januar^  Ad.    Early  Breakfast  Picture  m  .. 


The  Franklin  Mills  Co., 


.-///  the  Wlteat  thafs  Fit  'a  Lot." 

LOCKPORT. 


No.  2 

We  wish  to  say  that  our  February  advertisement, 
embodying  "the  direct  command"  advised  by  Profes- 
sor Scott,  is  bringing  far  greater  returns  than  any  ad- 
vertisement we  have  ever  before  published,  and  this  is 

77 


THE    THEORY    OF    ADVERTISING 

surprising  in  the  face  of  the  fact  that  the  public  are 
overloaded  with  free  samples  of  hundreds  of  cereals, 
and  are  so  confused  thereby  that  they  hardly  know 
what  they  want. 

Another  instance  of  the  successful  application 
of  this  principle  appeared  in  a  recent  issue  of 
Printers'  Ink.  It  is  entitled,  "A  Story  of  Prog- 
ress," and  gives  the  history  of  the  wonderful 
growth  of  the  Delineator: 

Then  advertising  was  used  in  dailies  and  magazines 
throughout  the  country.  Bill-boards  were  also  utilized 
for  a  brief  period,  chiefly  to  spread  the  well-known  catch 
phrase,  "Just  get  the  Delineator."  This  phrase  origi- 
nated with  Mr.  Thayer,  who,  in  speaking  about  it,  said: 

' '  I  had  tried  more  than  a  year  to  hit  upon  a  suitable 
phrase,  but  nothing  would  come  to  me.  One  day  I 
read  an  article  by  Professor  Scott  in  Mahin's  Maga- 
zine, in  which  he  showed  that  if  the  words  '  Cut  this 
coupon  out  and  mail  it  to-day  '  were  used  instead  of 
4  Use  this  coupon,'  there  would  be  a  larger  number  of 
replies.  It  is  his  theory  that  people  will  follow  a  defi- 
nite direction  of  this  sort,  and  the  theory  appealed  to 
me.  So  I  formulated  my  phrase  in  the  belief  that  its 
suggestion  would  be  followed,  especially  by  women. 
Results  have  proved  that  it  is  an  effective  phrase. 
To  my  own  personal  knowledge  the  catch  line  has  tan- 
talized even  men  until  they  bought  copies  to  see  the 
publication  for  themselves." 


VI 


( 


THE  "PSYCHOLOGICAL  VALUE 
OF  THE  RETURN  COUPON 

THE  return  coupon,  which  is  the  product  of  a 

long  evolution  in  which  necessity  and  practical 

experience  were  the  prime  moving  factors,   has 

of  recent  years  been  greatly  improved  by  those 

who  have  been  able  to  analyze  it 

vo  u  ion  o      an(^  to  apprecjate  its  possibilities. 

the  Coupon 

Before    the    days   of   the  coupon, 

the  advertiser  met  with  great  difficulty  in  try- 
ing to  keep  tab  on  the  various  publications 
in  which  he  advertised.  The  "  Please  mention 
this  magazine"  was  frequently  disregarded, 
and  so  the  idea  was  conceived  of  having  some- 
thing returned  to  the  advertiser  which  would 
indicate  the  publication  in  which  the  sender  had 
seen  the  advertisement.  At  first  it  was  the  whole 
advertisement  which  was  to  be  returned,  and  we 
find  at  the  end  of  some  of  the  old  advertisements 
this  statement,  "Please  cut  this  advertisement 
out,"  etc.  Then  it  was  conceived  that  it  was 
not  necessary  to  return  the  entire  advertisement, 
but  merely  a  blank  for  the  name  and  address, 
and  so  the  coupon  was  evolved. 

The  return  coupon  was,  then,  in  the  beginning 
a  keying  device  and  was  not  intended  to  have 
any  value  as  a  means  of  securing  replies.  It 

79 


THE     THEORY    OF     ADVERTISING 


was  not  to  assist  the  reader  to  answer  the  ad- 
vertisement, but  was  intended  as  an  assist- 
ance to  the  advertiser  in  keeping  tab  on  the 
various  publications  in  which  he  advertised. 


Messrs.  Houghton.  Mifflin  & 

Please  send  me  by  mail 
out  charge  circula 
checked  on  the  following  list,  viz. 

Lowell lontfeUoi 


Harte     Dickens Tbackeray 

Macaulaj Anwican  Statesman 

Also  full  particulars  of  your 

NEW  OFFER  FOR  1901 


No.  i. 

Later  it  was  discovered  that  the  coupon  had  a 
greater  value  than  had  been  supposed  —  that 
it  was  in  itself  a  strong  argument  and  that  its 
value  was  therefore  psychological.  The  coupon 
appeals  directly  to  the  reader  and  induces  more 
to  answer  the  advertisement  than  would  do  so  if 
the  coupon  were  not  there. 

80 


VALUE  OF  THE  RETURN  COUPON 

One  psychological  value  of  the  return  coupon 

is    that    it    attracts    attention.     In 
Attention       ,,    .         .   .     .   , 

their  original  form  t;hese  coupons 

(No.  i)  were  something  different 
from  anything  that  had  previously  appeared  in 
advertisements,  and  attracted  attention  by  way 
of  contrast  to  ordinary  advertisements.  They 
also  attracted  attention  because  the  ruled  blank 


[The  accompanying  cut  is 
a  reproduction  of  a  coupon 
attached  to  an  advertise- 
ment   in    the    New    York 
Herald 
Mr.    Ralph 
that  this 
angular  coupon  ever 


2E«  SAVE  FRONT  837  TO  9110 


No.  2. 

lines  and  open  spaces  were  in  contrast  with  the 
rest  of  the  advertisement.  The  coupon  is  so 
familiar  now  that  it  does  not  offer  so  strong  a 
contrast  to  other  advertisements  as  formerly, 
but  is  still  in  contrast  to  the  rest  of  the  advertise- 

81 


THE    THEORY    OF    ADVERTISING 

ment  in  which  it  is  contained.  To  make  this 
latter  contrast  stronger,  the  whole  advertisement, 
as  well  as  the  coupon  itself,  has  been  greatly 
modified.  The  chief  alteration  was  in  the  coupon, 
which  was  changed  from  the  square  or  oblong  to 
the  triangle  (No.  2).  All  the  lines  of  reading 
matter  are  horizontal,  but  the  little  three-cor- 
nered coupon  has  one  or  more  oblique  lines,  and 
the  oblique  lines  run  in  different  directions.  This 
brings  it  into  contrast  with  the  rest  of  the  adver- 
tisement. 

I  asked  a  large  group  of  persons  to  think  of 
some  number.  Very  many  more  of  them  thought 
of  three  than  of  any  other  number.  I  have  asked 
other  groups  to  think  of  some  geometrical  figure, 
and  more  think  of  a  triangle  than  of  any  other 
figure.  I  have  exposed,  for  a  very  short  interval 
of  time,  various  geometrical  figures,  and  the  tri- 
angle catches  their  attention  more  than  any  other 
figure.  The  number  three  and  a  figure  with  three 
sides  possess  a  peculiar  interest  for  us.  It  seems, 
then,  that  the  triangle  is  more  attractive  than  a 
square,  an  oblong,  or  parallel  lines,  and  so  it  at- 
tracts our  attention  to  itself  and  indirectly  to  the 
advertisement  in  which  it  is  contained.  The 
shape  of  the  entire  advertisement  and  particularly 
the  shape  of  the  border  has  been  changed  to  make 
the  contrast  with  the  three-cornered  coupon 
greater.  By  certain  leading  advertisers  the  bor- 
der has  been  constructed  of  figured  designs  com- 

82 


VALUE  OF  THE  RETURN  COUPON 

posed  of  broken  curved  lines,  or  of  continuous 
curved  lines,  or  else  the  border  has  been  discarded 
entirely  (No.  3).  These  changes  make  the  bold, 


When 

Forty  Thousand 

People 


make  up  their  minds  to  buy  something,  their  purchasing 
rer  is  tremendous— iftmiud! 

The  Wanamaker  Century  Club  has  united  some  40,000 
ben  who    wanted  The  Century  Dictionary  and  Cyclopedia   and 
Atlas.     That  is  the  simple  story  of  how  the  half-price  came  to  be. 
Since  we  fint  opened  The   Wanamaker  Century   Club  the   »cti  purchased 


a  saving  of  over  two  million  dollars 


hope  to  find  fn  the  one  be»t  cycloped 

Of  Facts,  the  most  complete  of  dictionaries  of  our  language;  the  most  thorough  and 
usable  of  World-Atlases,  and  takes  the    lace  of  many  separate  works  sucli  as 


what  you  would  hope  to  find  fn  the  one 


World-Atlases,  and  takes  the  place  01  many  separate  wonts  sue 
cyclopedias  of  Commerce,  Banking,  Engineering,  Art,  Architecture  and 
score  of  other  subjects.  It  is  a  compute  Wo, 


once,  or  a  little  at  a  time,  as  you  prefer 

send  full  particulars  on  receipt  of  the  c 


No.  3. 


straight  lines  of  the  coupon  stand  out  in  marked 
contrast,  and  are  almost  sure  to  attract  the  atten- 
tion as  one  turns  over  the  page. 

83 


THE    THEORY    OF    ADVERTISING 


The  contrast  between  the  coupon  and  the  rest 
of  the  advertisement  (not  to  mention  the  con- 
trast with  other  advertisements)  is  not  the  only 
source  of  attention  value  of  the  coupon.  A 
second  attractive  feature  is  found  in  the  direct 


One  dollar  is  all! 

•• 

A  single  Dollar  (if  you  act  at  once)  is  all  it  will  cost  you  to 
secure  possession  of  FIDPATH'S  History  of  the  World. 
A  great  big  set  of  9  Royal  Octavo  volumes 
with  4  000  illustrations,  and  many 
maps  and  color  plates. 
The  rest  you  pay 
lonthly  pay- 
ltsof$2each. 


Your 

Last  Chance! 

fc|  F  jrou'd  like  to  own  the  best  World's  History  in  existence,-*  history 
11    that's  as   interesting  as  a  storybook  and  almost  as  reliable  as  the  law 


We're  a  pamphlet,  prepared  by  the  publishers  of  the  history,  which 
tells  just  what  the  work  is,  how  it  came  to  be  wntten,  and  the  sort 


o<  readers  it  aims  to  entertain  and  interest.    This  pamphlet  also 
specimens  of   the  illustrations  and  ten  pages,  and  if 


contains 

you're  interested,  and  mail  us  the  coupon,  we'll 

Reading  that  pamphlet  will  settle  in  your  mind, 
lor  all,  whether  you  need  the  history  or  not  •  and  vo 


No.  4. 

command  ordinarily  placed  between  the  body 
of  the  advertisement  and  the  coupon.  The  ex- 
pressions "Cut  this  corner  off,"  "Cut  along  this 
line,"  etc.,  have  a  decided  value  in  attracting 
attention.  (See  chapter  on  "The  Direct  Com- 
mand as  a  Form  of  Argumentation.") 

Another  source  of  attention  value  in  this  kind 
of   advertising   is   in   the   dotted   line   indicating 


VALUE  OF  THE  RETURN  COUPON 

the  place  at  which  the  coupon  should  be  cut  off. 
This  dotted  line  suggests  action,  and  as  such  is 
interesting  and  attracts  the  attention.  If  the 
dotted  lines  could  give  the  impression  of  perfo- 
rated paper,  the  results  would  be  better.  Where 
possible  it  would  be  well  to  have  the  paper  per- 
forated along  the  line  where  the  coupon  is  to  be 
torn  off. 

Another  source  of  attention  value  in  this  kind 
of  advertising  in  its  modified  form  is  found  in  the 
devices  employed  (No.  4)  to  direct  the  attention 
to  the  dotted  line  or  to  the  "  Cut  this  corner  off. " 
The  index  fingers,  all  pointing  to  the  same  thing, 
give  one  the  impression  that  there  must  be  some- 
thing very  special  at  that  point,  and  many  per- 
sons look  to  see  what  the  fingers  are  pointing  at, 
when  otherwise  they  would  pass  the  entire  adver- 
tisement by  without  noticing  it. 

In  addition  to  its  power  in  attracting  atten- 

T.  ,*  .  tion,    the    return    coupon    has    a 

Definite  and     . 

Specific         farther  psychological  value  in  that 
it  gives    the  reader  something  defi- 
nite and  specific  to  do. 

I  have  frequently  observed  in  teaching  that 
if  pupils  or  students  are  given  definite  and  spe- 
cific tasks  to  perform,  they  perform  them  with 
alacrity.  If,  however,  the  tasks  are  made  gen- 
eral and  assigned  as  something  which  they  might 
do  sometime,  no  impression  is  made  on  their  minds 
and  nothing  is  done.  A  necessary  characteristic 

85 


THE     THEORY    OF    ADVERTISING 

of  a  teacher  is  the  ability  to  make  his  students 
know  just  what  he  wants  them  to  do.  A  prime 
requisite  of  an  advertisement,  when  direct  evi- 
dence of  attention  is  desired,  is  that  it  should  give 
the  reader  something  definite  and  specific  to  do 
at  once,  i.  e.,  that  the  reader  should  open  a  cor- 
respondence with  the  firm.  With  our  present 
knowledge  there  could  probably  be  no  better 
way  of  making  that  end  clear  than  by  the  use  of 
the  return  coupon.  Its  function  is  much  like 
that  of  a  sun-glass.  The  rays  of  the  sun,  falling 
on  a  piece  of  paper,  will  warm  it,  but  will  not 
cause  it  to  burn.  If  the  rays  are  allowed  to  shine 
through  the  sun-glass  and  to  focus  at  one  point  of 
the  paper,  the  whole  will  soon  be  ignited.  The 
argument  in  an  advertisement  may  be  good,  it 
may  even  make  the  reader  "warm"  with  the 
desire  to  secure  the  goods,  but  his  desire  may 
not  result  in  action.  The  heat  was  not  focused 
at  one  point.  The  return  coupon  concentrates 
all  this  desire  or  "warmth"  at  one  point;  it 
overcomes  procrastination  and  secures  the  neces- 
sary action. 

An  additional  psychological  value  of  the  re- 
turn  coupon   is   that   it  makes  it 

easv  to  answer  the  advertisement. 
Answcrin.2" 

E         '  There  are  persons  who  will  climb 

the  Matterhorn  because  of  the 
difficulty  of  the  ascent.  There  are  those  who  will 
spend  hours  and  even  days  trying  to  solve 

86 


VALUE  OF  THE  RETURN  COUPON 

difficult  puzzles.  These  are  but  apparent  excep- 
tions to  the  universal  rule  that  mankind  is  as  a 
class  hopelessly  lazy.  We  desire  the  best  results, 
but  we  want  to  secure  them  with  the  least  possi- 
ble labor.  We  refuse  to  take  two  steps  when  one 
is  sufficient.  Business  men  recognize  this  fact 
and  place  their  merchandise  where  it  can  easily 
be  secured  by  the  buyer.  They  choose  a  site  for 
their  stores  where  they  will  be  the  most  accessi- 
ble. They  arrange  their  goods  so  that  they  may 
be  most  easily  seen  and  secured  by  the  public. 
They  send  out  their  representatives  to  display 
the  goods  and  leave  nothing  to  the  purchaser 
but  to  indicate  what  he  wants.  In  short,  every- 
thing possible  is  done  to  make  it  easy  for  the  cus- 
tomers. The  traveling  salesman  made  it  so  easy 
for  the  customer  that  he  undoubtedly  gave 
orders  for  goods  which  he  would  not  have  pur- 
chased if  he  had  been  obliged  to  go  after  them  or 
even  to  write  a  letter  for  them.  For  a  mail- 
order house,  the  return  coupon  supplements  or 
takes  the  place  of  a  traveling  salesman.  It  pre- 
sents itself  to  the  possible  customer,  and  all  he  has 
to  do  is  to  fill  it  out  and  return  it,  and  the  goods  are 
forthcoming.  Even  for  the  experienced  business 
man  it  is  easier  to  fill  out  a  blank  than  it  is  to 
dictate  or  write  a  letter.  But  all  are  not  exper- 
ienced business  men.  There  are  those  who  make 
good  customers,  but  whose  only  formula  for  letter- 
writing  is  "  I  take  my  pen  in  hand  to  let  you  know 

87 


THE     THEORY    OF    ADVERTISING 

that  I  am  well  and  hope  that  this  will  find  you  the 
same. "  For  such  a  person  to  compose  a  business 
letter  is  a  task  of  no  small  importance.  He  does 
not  know  whether  to  begin  with  "Dear  Sir"  or 
with  "Gentlemen;"  he  does  not  know  whether 
he  should  close  with  "Yours  truly"  or  "Affec- 
tionately yours."  The  betrayal  of  his  ignorance 
and  the  effort  of  composition  are  hindrances 
of  such  magnitude  that  he  is  frequently  de- 
terred from  securing  the  desired  goods.  To  be 
relieved  from  this  embarrassment  and  toil  is  for 
him  a  veritable  boon.  The  return  coupon  makes 
answering  easier  for  all,  whether  with  or  without 
experience  in  writing  business  letters.  It  makes 
answering  easy  not  only  because  it  has  the  return 
letter  already  composed,  but  also  because  the 
composed  letter  is  easily  accessible.  Some  adver- 
tisers do  not  seem  to  appreciate  this  latter  advan- 
tage and  so  allow  the  coupon  to  be  placed  near 
the  middle  of  the  page  and  on  the  inside  of  it  - 
next  to  the  binding.  The  following  reduced  re- 
production is  an  example  of  such  a  blunder.  (No. 
5.)  This  makes  it  unnecessarily  difficult  to 
get  at,  and  so  places  an  obstacle  in  the  way  of 
every  one  who  desires  to*  answer.  Many  would 
surmount  the  difficulty,  but  some  would  not.  It 
certainly  is  bad  business  policy  to  put  such  a  need- 
less obstruction  in  the  path  of  every  "would-be 
customer."  The  three-cornered  coupon  can  be 
cut  or  torn  off  more  easily  than  any  other.  If 

88 


VALUE  OF  THE  RETURN  COUPON 

placed  on  one  of  the  four  outer  corners  of  a  pub- 
lication it  can  be  severed  with  a  single  cut  of  the 
scissors  or  torn  off  with  a  single  tear.  It  is  more 
accessible  than  it  would  be  if  in  any  other  shape; 
it  makes  the  answering  of  the  advertisement 
easy,  and  to  that  extent  is  the  best  possible  shape 
for  a  return  coupon. 


&/>e  History  of  the  World 

Edited  by  DR.  H.  F.  HELMOLT 


Sl3^=S=jTr=jBS?KS3s5 

*•££*  SiSS  tSTSSSJS SsSSsSfv 
s=«BSr=,XT=5,':aSJf -^^x^ 


W  A  K 


No.  5. 

The  task  recently  devolved  on  me  of  purchas- 
ing a  baby  carriage.  I  had  never  been  interested 
in  them  before  and  did  not  know  where  I  had 
ever  seen  them  in  stores,  and  so  did  not  know 
where  I  should  go  to  secure  one.  I  turned  at 
once  to  the  advertisements  in  the  morning  paper 
and  saw  baby  carriages  advertised  at  a  certain 
down -town  store.  I  went  there  at  once  and 
asked  the  floor-walker  where  they  kept  them,  and 
he  politely  informed  me  that  they  did  not  handle 
them.  I  assured  him  that  I  had  seen  their  adver- 
tisement in  the  paper  that  morning  and  that 
they  must  therefore  have  them.  He  made  further 


THE    THEORY    OF    ADVERTISING 

inquiries  and  found  that  they  did  have  them,  and 
I  secured  my  desired  article.  Having  seen  the 
advertisement  in  the  paper,  it  was  easy  for  me 
to  find  what  I  wanted.  All  advertisements 
make  it  easy  for  the  purchaser  to  know  where 
the  class  of  goods  are  kept  which  he  desires  to 
secure.  It  will  readily  be  seen  that  one  of  the 
great  functions  of  any  advertisement  is  in  this 

ay  to  make  it  easy  for  the  purchaser  to  find  what 
he  wants.  .  The  coupon  has  the  additional  value 
of  being  of  such  a  nature  that  the  purchaser  can 
secure  the  goods  desired  without  going  out  after 
them  and  even  without  the  trouble  of  composing 
and  writing  a  letter.  Some  of  us  are  not  so  lazy 
as  others,  but  we  are  all  procrastinators.  We 
often  decide  that  we  want  a  thing,  but  we  put 
off  the  purchase  till  the  desire  has  gone  and  so  we 
never  secure  what  we  wanted.  Procrastination 
is  so  easy  that  we  will  put  off  till  to-morrow  what 
would  cause  us  trouble  to  do  to-day.  With  the 
coupon,  the  task  of  ordering  the  goods  is  so  easy 
that  there  is  almost  no  excuse  for  procrastination, 
even  if  we  are  somewhat  lazy.  An  advertisement 
should  make  it  as  easy  as  possible  for  the  pur- 
chaser to  secure  the  goods  he  desires  and  should 
take  away  every  possible  ground  for  hesitation. 
In  these  particulars  the  coupon  is  especially  strong. 

We  have  now  seen  that  the  coupon  attracts 
attention  because  of  its  novelty  or  contrast, 
because  of  its  triangular  shape,  because  of  the 

90 


VALUE  OF  THE  RETURN  COUPON 

direct  command  and  the  index  finger  which 
frequently  accompanies  the  return  coupon.  We 
have  seen  that  it  is  psychologically  strong  be- 
cause it  is  specific  and  direct  in  its  appeal.  We 
have  also  seen  its  strength  in  that  it  makes 
answering  the  advertisement  easy  and  calls  for 
immediate  action.  All  these  advantages  are 
but  supplementary  and  subsidiary  to  the  great 
function  of  the  return  coupon.  Its  real  value 
is  to  be  found  in  the  fact  that  it 

suggests  to  the  reader  that  he  should 
Action 

sign  his  name,  tear  out  the  coupon 

and  send  it  to  the  address  given.  The  prime  value 
of  the  coupon  is  lost  unless  this  is  attained.  The 
coupon  does  attract  attention,  but  that  is  of  value 
merely  because  in  attracting  attention  it  brings 
the  suggestion  to  the  mind  of  the  reader  and  keeps 
it  there.  It  is  specific  and  direct,  but  that  is  of 
value  only  because  it  holds  before  the  mind  the 
one  specific  suggestion  which  is  desired.  It 
makes  action  easy,  and  that  is  good  because  then 
no  barrier  is  placed  in  the  way  of  the  suggestion. 
It  calls  for  immediate  action  and  that  is  essential 
because  unless  the  suggestion  is  acted  upon  at 
once,  it  grows  weaker  and  would  fail  of  its 
purpose. 

In  connection  with  direct  commands  and 
return  coupons  there  should  be  some  mention 
made  of  other  similar  devices  for  suggesting 
action.  Among  these  latter  are  the  return  pos- 

91 


THE     THEORY    OF    ADVERTISING 

• 
tal  card,  the  money  envelope,  the  money  card, 

etc.  There  seems  to  be  no  end  to  the  number 
of  such  devices  that  skill  and  ingenuity  may  dis- 
cover. They  are  used  with  great  profit  by  their 
inventors,  but  when  the  novelty  has  worn  off, 
they  are  less  valuable,  and  other  forms  are  then 
demanded. 


This  chapter  in  substantially  its  present  form 
appeared  first  in  a  magazine  article.  One  of  the 
readers  of  the  magazine  decided  to  make  an 
experiment  in  applying  the  principle  to  his  own 
business.  He  noticed  this  sentence,  "They  are 
used  with  great  profit  by  their  inventors,  but 
when  the  novelty  has  worn  off,  they  are  less  val- 
uable, and  other  forms  are  then  demanded." 
He  tried  to  preserve  the  psychological  value  of 
the  return  coupon,  but  to  present  it  in  a  new  form 
and  in  such  a  way  that  it  would  be  adapted  to 
his  demands.  The  result  of  his  labor  is  seen  on 
the  opposite  page  in  No.  6. 

After  the  form  had  been  in  use  a  short  time  we 
received  the  following  letter  from  the  inventor 
of  it. 

CHICAGO,  April  2,  1903. 
DR.  WALTER  DILL  SCOTT, 
Northwestern    University, 
Evanston,  111.  : 

Dear  Sir,  —  I  am  sending  you  under  separate  cover 
copy  of  the  "Ballot"  advertisement,  which  we  got  out 

92 


Check  the  edition  of  Price  List  you  wish  sent  (will  send  both  if 
desired),  also  articles  which  you  handle  or  use,  so  that  we  can 
send  samples  and  special  information  from  time  to  time. 

D  Hardware  Dealers'  Edition 


j 

- 

Steel  Roofings 

- 

Conductor  Pipe.  Gutter.  Etc. 

; 

Steel  Ceilings 

= 

Roofing  and  Metal  Paints 

i 

= 

Tin  Plates 

Galvanized.  Smooth  and  Planished  Iron 

= 

Asbestos  Paper.  Mill  Board.  Etc. 
Asbestos  Pipe  Covering.  Cements.  Eu  » 

i 

j 

It 

= 

Ridge  Roll  and  Cresting 
Skylights  and  Cornices 
Sheet  Zinc  and  Copper 

= 

Mineral  Wool 
Furnace  Pipe  and  Registers 
Tinner!  Tools 

1 



D  Lumber  Dealers'  Edition 

Building  Papers 

- 

1  wo  and  Three  Ply  Roofing 

= 

-  Lincoln      Roofing 

Asphalt  Roofing 

! 

~~ 

Portable  Gravel  Roofing 

= 

Roof  Coatings 

Asbestos  Fire-Proof  Roofing 

~ 

Deadening  Felts 

== 

Waterproof  Papers 

Carpet  Linings 

• 

= 

Tarred  Felts 

= 

Asphalt  Metal  Paints 

- 

N. 

D 

j 

Pitch  and  Coal  Tar 

- 

Roofing  and  Paving  Asphalt 

Town                                                    State 

1  Check  here  if  not  interested  in  the  above  lines  of  goods  and  we  will  remove  your 
name  from  our  mailing  list. 

STAMPED  ENVELOPE  ENCLOSED  FOR  RETURN  OF  THIS  FORM. 

No.  6. 


THE    THEORY    OF    ADVERTISING 

recently  along  the  lines  suggested  by  your  articles  in 
Mahin's  Magazine,  and  are  pleased  to  report  that  the 
returns  are  very  satisfactory.  Over  50  per  cent,  of  the 
sheets  were  returned,  making  a  very  valuable  mailing 
list,  but  we  do  not  consider  this  as  important  as  the 
psychological  value  of  having  the  retail  dealers  make  a. 
special  request  for  our  monthly  price  list. 

As  a  test  case,  we  mailed  thirty  of  these  sheets  to, 
dealers  to  whom  we  had  been  sending  our  catalogues, 
and  other  advertising  material  regularly  for  a  number 
of  years,  but  had  never  received  any  returns.  Of  these- 
seventeen  were  returned,  three  containing  special  re-, 
quests  for  prices,  one  of  which  resulted  in  an  immediate- 
order. 

I  find  the  knowledge  of  the  psychological  principles 
of  advertising  very  helpful  in  planning  my  advertising- 
work,  and  will  be  pleased  to  give  you  any  further  data, 
in  regard  to  the  results  obtained  that  you  may  wish. 

Yours  truly, 

J.  C.  WOODLEY.. 

At  the  time  this  chapter  was  prepared  for  pub-. 
lication  in  magazine  form  (May,  1902)  there  were 
but  few  return  coupons  appearing  in  the  current, 
magazines,  and  those  appearing  were  placed, 
with  but  little  regard  to  position.  Thus  in  Mun-~ 
sey's  Magazine  for  May,  1902,  there  were  but, 
three  return  coupons,  and  one  of  them  was  so, 
placed  that  it  came  next  to  the  binding  and  would 
be  hard  to  detach.  In  McC 'lure's  for  the  same; 
month  there  appeared  four  return  coupons  and 
one  of  them  was  next  to  the  binding.  In  the 
Century  Magazine  for  the  same  month  there; 

94 


I    UNIVfc^SITY  ) 
VALUE    OF    THE    R*E Ti»N^6 O U P O N 


appeared  but  a  single  return  coupon.  Com- 
paring all  the  copies  of  the  magazines  at  hand 
for  May,  1902,  and  for  May,  1903, 1  find  that  there 
is  a  very  decided  increase  in  the  number  of  return 
coupons  and  especially  in  the  number  of  three- 
cornered  coupons.  Furthermore  in  all  these 
magazines  for  May,  1903,  there  is  not  a  coupon 
placed  next  to  the  binding  or  in  the  middle  of 
the  page,  as  was  done  so  frequently  before  this 
article  appeared  in  the  magazine. 


95 


VII 

FUSION 


SOME  years  ago  I  was  spending  my  Christmas 

vacation   at  my   old   home.     One 
Illustration  .  .^.        .      ,,       v 

morning  I  was   sitting  in  the    li- 

j .,  brary  reading  short  stories.    While 

I  was  reading,  my  sister  went  to 
the  piano  and  began  playing  some  of  the  tunes 
which  she  had  played  years  before,  and  which 
I  had  particularly  enjoyed.  I  did  not  notice  the 
fact  that  she  was  playing  at  all,  but  I  thought 
the  stories  were  peculiarly  beautiful  „  The  next 
day  I  remarked  about  them  and  had  occasion 
to  refer  to  them.  I  was  greatly  disappointed 
upon  reading  them  the  second  time  to  find  that 
they  were  very  commonplace  and  that  ordinarily 
they  would  not  have  pleased  me  at  all.  If  I  had 
paid  strict  attention  to  the  short  stories  alone, 
they  would  have  proved  themselves  to  be  very 
uninteresting.  As  it  was,  I  paid  partial  attention 
to  each  and  fused  the  music  and  the  reading  into 
one  total  impression  which  was  extremely  pleas- 
ing. 

On  certain  occasions  when  friends  are  together 
all  have  a  jolly  good  time.  A  spirit  of  good 
fellowship  reigns,  and  every  one  is  happy  and 
contented.  The  stories  told  are  appreciated  and 
applauded.  The  jokes  all  seem  so  fitting  and 


FUSION 


pertinent.  Even  if  they  have  been  heard  before, 
they  are  so  well  told  and  so  apropos  that  they 
are  as  good  as  new.  The  next  day  one  is  often 
chagrined  when  he  tries  to  relate  the  stories  and 
jokes,  and  to  tell  why  he  had  enjoyed  the  occa- 
sion so  well.  The  stories  may  have  been  mere 
commonplaces  and  the  jokes  nothing  but  old 
standby s,  but  they  did  not  stand  alone ;  they  were 
enforced  and  improved  by  the  spirit  of  good  fel- 
lowship which  pervaded  the  company.  The  place, 
the  stories,  the  jokes,  the  refreshments, the  amuse- 
ment, and  the  occasion  all  united  their  influences 
to  make  a  total  impression.  They  were  fused 
together,  and  their  total  product  was  what  had 
so  delighted  us.  Any  one  of  these  things  taken 
singly  would  have  been  insufficient  to  produce  any 
pleasant  result,  but  when  taken  collectively  each 
shines  in  a  borrowed  light. 

If  I  hold  a  lead-pencil  vertically  in  my  hand 
directly  in  front  of  my  nose,  the  name  of  the  man- 
ufacturer printed  on  the  pencil  will  be  barely  visi- 
ble, if  it  is  on  the  extreme  right  side  of  the  pencil. 
If,  however,  I  close  my  right  eye,  the  name 
disappears.  If  I  make  a  mark  on  the  pencil 
directly  opposite  the  name  of  the  manufac- 
turer and  hold  the  pencil  as  before,  both  the  mark 
and  the  name  are  visible.  If  I  close  the  right 
eye,  the  name  disappears.  If  I  close  the  left 
eye,  the  mark  disappears.  As  I  look  at  the  pen- 
cil with  my  right  eye  I  get  a  slightly  different 

97 


THE    THEORY    OF    ADVERTISING 

impression  than  I  do  when  I  look  with  my  left 
eye,  and  vice  versa.  We  are  not  conscious  of 
these  two  partial  impressions,  for  we  fuse  them 
into  one  total  impression,  which  gives  us  a  better 
perception  of  the  pencil  than  is  contained  in  the 
mathematical  sum  of  the  two  partial  percep- 
tions. A  discussion  of  the  result  of  this  fusion 
of  the  two  impressions  made  upon  the  two  eyes 
would  be  out  of  place  at  this  point,  but  it  might 
be  remarked  that  among  these  results  are  accu- 
rate judgments  of  the  distance  and  of  the  thick- 
ness of  the  pencil. 

At  any  point  of  time  we  may  be  receiving  im- 
pressions of  sight  through  the  eyes,  impressions 
of  sound  through  the  ears,  impressions  of  hunger 
or  thirst  from  the  body,  and  at  the  same  time 
we  may  be  thinking  of  former  experiences.  All 
these  impressions,  sensations,  ideas,  etc.,  are  fused 
together  and  have  no  separate  existence.  Each 
plays  a  part  in  determining  the  whole  conscious 
impression  or  condition,  but  the  parts  do  not 
exist  alone.  It  is  a  general  law  of  psychology 
that  all  things  tend  to  fuse  and  only  those  thines^) 
are  analyzed  that  must  be  analyzedf  In  the  be- 
ginning we  perceive  objects  as  concrete  wholes 
and  then  later  analyze  the  wholes  into  parts. 
If  the  first  animal  which  a  child  sees  should  be  a 
dog,  it  would  see  ,the  dog  as  a  very  different  thing 
from  what  it  would  later  appear  to  him.  It 
would  be  a  dog,  but  his  idea  of  it  would  be  so 

98 


FUSION 


indefinite  that  he  would  not  notice  whether  it 
had  four  or  six  legs,  whether  it  had  ears  or  trunk, 
nose  or  bill,  or  whether  it  was  white  or  black. 
By  later  experience  the  child  would  learn  that  the 
dog  was  of  a  particular  color,  had  four  legs,  two 
ears,  that  it  barked,  ate,  and  that  it  had  certain 
other  peculiarities  and  characteristics.  The  ex- 
pert in  natural  history  and  the  dog  fancier  each 
notice  certain  things  about  the  dog  that  the  rest 
of  humanity  never  sees  at  all.  We  grasp  every- 
thing as  a  concrete  whole  first,  and  then  by  later 
experience  we  analyze  this  whole  and  add  to  it. 
The  point  to  be  emphasized  is  that 
p  .  we  do  not  first  perceive  the  parts  \ 

Entireties  an(^  Mn^e  them  to  form  the  greater 
wholes,  but  that  we  first  perceive 
the  wholes  and  only  after  the  process  of  analysis  .„. 
has  been  completed  do  we  perceive  the  parts.  There 
are  certain  products  of  fusion  which  by  most  of 
us  are  never  analyzed  at  all.  This  is  the  case 
with  the  sensations  which  we  receive  whenever 
we  breathe.  With  every  breath  the  diaphragm 
contracts  and  expands,  the  muscles  raise  and 
lower  the  ribs,  the  lungs  receive  and  discharge  a 
volume  of  air,  the  air  passages  in  the  nose  and 
windpipe  enlarge  and  contract.  All  these  play  a 
part  in  making  the  total  sensation  which  we  call 
breathing,  but  we  cannot  with  ease  analyze  the 
different  parts.  They  are  fused  together,  and  as 
it  would  be  of  no  particular  benefit  to  analyze 

99 


THE    THEORY    OF    ADVERTISING 


the  product  we  have  never  done  so,  and  we 
never  would  have  known  that  the  feeling  was  the 
product  of  these  elements  unless  we  had  rea- 
soned it  out  first. 

We  know  of  no  object  which  is  independent 
of  all  other  things.  In  fact,  the  value  of  all 
objects  depends  upon  the  relationships  which  they 
have  to  other  things.  We  think  of  things  only 
in  their  relations,  and  these  relationships  fuse 
and  constitute  the  object  as  we  know  it.  An- 
thracite or  bituminous  coal,  yellow  clay  and 
black  loam,  can  all  be  thought  of  as  pure  and 
clean,  but  under  certain  conditions  they  be- 
come dirt.  None  of  these  are  dirt  in  themselves, 
but  in  certain  abnormal  positions  they  are  noth- 
ing but  filth.  When  bituminous  coal  is  on  the 
face  of  the  coal  heaver  it  is  almost  impossible 
to  think  of  it  as  coal.  It  has  ceased  to  be  coal 
and  has  become  dirt  because  of  the  abnormal 
environment  into  which  it  has  come. 

The  manner  in  which  the  environment  fuses 
with  an  article  and  determines  its  value  is  well 
illustrated  by  food  in  a  restaurant.  The  food 
may  be  of  the  very  best  quality  and  the  prepara- 
tion may  have  been  faultless,  yet  if  the  service 
is  poor, —  if  the  waiter's  linen  is  dirty  and  his 
manner  slovenly, —  the  food  does  not  taste  good 
and  is  not  appetizing.  You  may  reason  out  that 
the  waiter  has  nothing  to  do  with  the  prepara- 
tion of  the  food  and  that  his  linen  has  not  come 

100 


FUSION 


into  contact  with  it,  but  all  your  reasoning  will 
do  you  but  little  good.  The  idea  of  dirty  linen 
and  this  particular  food  are  in  your  mind  indis- 
solubly  united,  and  now,  instead  of  thinking  of 
food  in  the  abstract,  you  are  compelled  to  think 
of  food  in  this  particular  relationship,  and  the 
result  is  anything  but  appetizing. 

The  same  thing  is  illustrated  in  all  places  of 
business.  Stores  and  offices  have  a  tone  or  at- 
mosphere about  them,  and  everything  they 
have  to  offer  is  seen  through  this  atmosphere. 
I  heard  a  gentleman  say  recently  that  he  had 
gone  to  a  particular  store  to  buy  a  certain  arti- 
cle. The  store  was  recommended  to  him  and  he 
was  convinced  that  it  was  the  best  place  to 
buy  the  merchandise  desired.  When  he  entered 
the  store  he  found  such  a  shoddy  tone  to  the 
entire  establishment  that  he  could  not  believe 
that  the  goods  which  were  shown  him  were  de- 
sirable. If  he  could  have  seen  the  goods  in 
another  store  he  would  have  purchased  them  at 
once,  but  he  could  not  convince  himself  that  the 
goods  shown  him  there  were  what  he  wanted, 
so  he  left  without  purchasing  them.  We  are  not 
able  to  look  at  things  impartially  and  abstractly, 
but  we  judge  of  everything  in  the  light  of  its 
environment  —  it  fuses  with  its  environment  and 
the  environment  becomes  a  part  of  it. 

The  principle  of  fusion  is  a  subject  which 
should  be  carefully  considered  in  placing  an 

101 


THE    THEORY    OF    ADVERTISING 

advertisement.      If    we   could  think   quite    ana- 
lytically and    see    the    advertisement  just  as  it 
is,  and  as  a  thing  independent  of 
its  environment,  it  might  be  profit- 

Advertisin  a^e  to  P^ace  our  advertisements 
on  garbage  boxes  and  in  cheap  and 
disreputable  publications.  As  we  are  constructed, 
however,  such  a  course  would  be  suicidal,  even 
for  a  house  dealing  in  disreputable  and  cheap  arti- 
cles. The  medium  gives  a  tone  of  its  own  to  all 
the  advertisements  contained  in  it.  Personally  I 

feel  inclined  to  respect    any  firm 
Mediums        ,,  -,       ,.          .  ,.  -,     * 

that    advertises     in    a    high-class 

magazine,  and  unless  there  is  some  particular 
reason  to  the  contrary  am  willing  to  trust  its 
honesty.  I  have  always  regarded  handbills  as 
cheap  and  irresponsible,  and  usually  think  of  the 
goods  advertised  in  this  way  as  belonging  to  the 
same  category. 

In  the  course  of  a  conversation,  a  very  intelli- 
gent lady  recently  said  to  me  that  she  never 
read  the  advertisements  in  any  of  the  magazines 
excepting  in  her  home  religious  paper.  Here 
she  read  not  only  all  the  reading  matter,  but  all 
the  advertisements  as  well.  I  asked  her  why  she 
read  these  advertisements,  and  she  said  that  she 
knew  they  could  be  depended  upon.  She  had 
the  utmost  confidence  in  the  editor  and  believed 
that  he  knew  every  firm  advertising,  and  that 
by  accepting  its  advertisement  and  publishing 

102 


FUSION 


it  he  thereby  gave  it  his  stamp  of  approval.  No 
advertisement  appearing  in  this  periodical  was 
compelled  to  stand  on  its  own  merit  alone,  so  far 
as  she  was  concerned,  but  had  added  to  it  the 
confidence  inspired  by  this  publication.  The 
advertisement  and  her  confidence  fused  and 
formed  a  whole  in  which  the  lady  never  suspected 
that  any  other  element  entered  than  those  which 
were  in  the  advertisement  itself.  The  lady  re- 
ferred to  did  not  read  the  advertisements  in 
other  magazines  as  a  usual  thing.  I  have  seen 
her  turn  over  the  advertising  pages  of  other  mag- 
azines to  see  whether  there  was  anything  there 
that  interested  her.  She  reads  the  advertise- 
ments in  her  favorite  magazine  and  merely  looks 
over  the  others. 

In  choosing  the  publications  in  which  he 
should  place  his  advertisement,  the  advertiser 
should  not  only  consider  the  circulation  and  the 
kind  of  circulation,  but  he  should  also  consider 
the  tone  which  each  publication  would  add  to 
his  particular  advertisement.  It  is  well  to  have 
a  large  number  of  persons  read  your  advertise- 
ment; it  is  better  to  have  those  read  it  who  are 
interested  in  it  and  have  the  means  to  purchase 
the  goods  advertised ;  but  it  is  still  better  to  have 
a  large  number  of  the  right  kind  of  persons  see 
your  advertisement  in  a  publication  which  adds 
confidence  and  recommends  it  favorably  to  your 
prospective  customers.  Your  -advertisement 

103 


^THE    THEORY    OF    ADVERTISING^ 

will,  to  a  greater  or  less  extent,  fuse  with  the 
publication  in  which  it  appears,  and  the  product 
will  not  be  your  advertisement  as  it  was  prepared 
by  you,  but  as  it  conies  out  of  the  mold  into  which 
you  inserted  it. 

The  statement  that  a  man  is  known  by  the 
company  he  keeps  is  not  often  challenged,  and 
yet  the  statement  would  have  been  equally  true 
if  asserted  of  an  advertisement.  If  a  man  is 
seen  frequently  in  the  company  of  rascals,  we 
think  at  once  that  he  has  become  a  rascal,  but 
do  not  suppose  that  he  has  reformed  his  asso- 
ciates. The  honorable  man  loses  his  reputation 
by  associating  with  dishonorable  persons.  An 
honest  firm  which  advertises  in  a  disreputable 
sheet  and  brings  its  advertisement  into  asso- 
ciation with  advertisements  of  a  disreputable 
character  lays  itself  open  to  suspicion.  The 
firm  may  be  so  well  known  that  it  would  not  be 
greatly  injured  by  such  a  course,  and  it  might 
by  its  presence  raise  the  standard  of  the  other 
advertisements.  Such  a  work  of  philanthropy 
is  too  expensive  and  dangerous  to  recommend 
itself  to  the  better  known  firms.  If,  on  the 
other  hand,  a  disreputable  firm  should  place  its 
advertisement  in  a  high-grade  publication  and 
among  honest  advertisers,  it  would  for  a  time  at 
least  enjoy  the  confidence  inspired  by  the  pub- 
lication and  by  the  other  advertisements.  Every 
honest  firm  which  advertises  should  insist,  how- 

104 


FUSION 


ever,  that  all  dishonest  advertisements  be  re-- 
jected,  for,  unless  this  is  done,  the  honest  men 
lose  and  the  dishonest  ones  gain.  The  adver- 
tisements of  a  publication  are  in  the  mind  of  the 
public  all  classed  together,  and  if  it  is  known 
that  one  of  them  cannot  be  trusted,  all  are 
brought  into  disrepute. 

Because  of  this  principle  of' fusion,  it  is  imper- 
ative that  the  advertiser  should  see 
~up  that  the  make-up  of  the  publication 
is  not  detrimental  to  his  particular  advertisement. 
Your  advertisement  would  be  injured,  if,  in  the 
make-up,  your  advertisement  of  diamonds  was 
placed  among  advertisements  of  a  questionable 
character.  If  I  should  see  an  advertisement  of  an 
investment  scheme  that  guaranteed  unusually 
large  profits,  I  would  suspect  fraud  at  once  and 
would  assume  a  skeptical  attitude.  If  the  next 
instant  I  should  read  your  advertisement  of 
diamonds,  I  would  be  suspicious  and  would 
hardly  know  why  I  was  so.  If  the  next  moment 
I  should  read  the  advertisement  of  a  medicine 
that  cured  all  sorts  of  incurable  diseases,  my 
suspicions  would  be  confirmed,  and  I  would  be 
sure  that  your  diamonds  were  paste.  If,  on  the 
other  hand,  I  should  see  your  advertisement 
placed  among  those  which  I  knew  to  be  reliable, 
I  would  be  inclined  to  classify  yours  with  the 
others,  and  would  think  that  it  was  at  least 
worth  while  to  investigate  the  matter. 

105 


THE    THEORY    OF    ADVERTISING 

The  cut  given  below  (No.  i)  is  a  good  illustra- 
tion of  the  violation  of  the  proper  consideration 
of  the  principle  of  fusion  in  the  make-up  of  the 
advertisements  of  a  daily  paper.  In  a  Chicago 
daily  for  June  22,  1902,  appeared  three  partial 


DEATHS- 


•^SSEWMftajS 


—  «.  ***•!.*»*« 

I     *40  W.  Taylor  «t.,  bora 
MoW  J«.  23.  .1  1-30 
1»,  WUHjun  Malcolm,  .on  tl  Ba 


Dr,  Sleight's 
Fat  Reducing  Tablets 


columns  giving  announcements  of  deaths  and 
burials.  Inserted  in  the  middle  column  was 
this  advertisement  for  Dr.  Sleight's  fat-reducing 
tablets.  It  might  be  said  that  this  advertise- 
ment would  attract  attention  because  of  its  po- 
sition, but  the  effect  of  the  atmosphere  of  death 
and  burials  upon  the  fat-reducing  tablets  is  too 

apparent  to  need  comment. 

1 06 


FUSION 


Many  of  those  who  choose  illustrations  for 
their  advertisements  follow  the 
philosophy  of  the  Irish  boy  who 
said  that  he  liked  to  stub  his  toe  because  it  felt 
so  good  when  it  stopped  hurting.  Many  of  us 
are  unable  to  see  how  the  boy  had  made  any 
gain  after  it  was  all  over,  but  he  was  satisfied 
and  that  was  sufficient.  The  philosophic  dis- 
ciples of  the  Irish  boy  are  found  in  advertisers 
who  have  certain  things  to  dispose  of  which  will 
not  do  certain  harmful  things.  First  they  choose 
an  illustration  which  will  make  you  believe  that 
what  they  have  to  sell  is  just  what  you  do  not 
want,  and  then  in  the  text  they  try  to  overcome 
this  false  impression,  and  to  show  you  that  what 
they  have  to  offer  is  not  so  bad  after  all.  Most 
of  us  are  unable  to  see  how  the  advertiser  has 
gained,  even  if  he  has  succeeded  in  giving  us 
logical  proof  that  his  goods  are  not  so  bad  as  we 
were  at  first  led  to  think.  We  are  not  logi- 
cally inclined,  and  we  take  the  illustration  and 
the  text  and  combine  the  two.  The  best  that  the 
text  can  do  is  to  destroy  the  evil  effect  of  the 
illustration.  Of  course,  when  we  read  in  the 
text  that  the  illustration  does  not  correctly  rep- 
resent the  goods,  we  ought  to  discard  the  illustra- 
tion entirely  and  think  only  of  the  text,  but, 
unfortunately,  we  are  not  constructed  that  way. 
The  impression  made  by  the  illustration  and 
that  made  by  the  text  fuse  and  form  a  whole 

107 


THE     THEORY    OF    ADVERTISING 


which   is   the   result   formed   by  these    two   ele- 
ments. 

In  No.  2  of  the  reproduced  advertisements 
the  advertiser  wants  to  bring  out  the  fact  that 
his  insect  powder  will  not  kill  human  individuals, 
but  will  kill  insects.  The  line  of  his  argument 
would  seem  to  be  the  exhibition  of  a  picture  of 
the  skull  of  a  person  killed  by  his  insect  powder. 
He  then  confidentially  assures  you  that  his  pow- 


INSEXDIE— R 

1    ants,  moths,  bed  1 


through  their  bodies,  having 
no  lunge,  and  for  this  reason  It 
does  not  require  a  POISON  to 
kill  them. 

INSKXDIE  will  also  kill 
Insects  on   blr<l»,  chicken.. 


GINSENG  imT.  & 

CHEMICAL  CO. 

»»•!..  St.  Loul..  Mo. 


No.  2. 

der  is  ''non-poisonous  to  human."  Most  people 
who  notice  the  advertisement  see  the  picture  of 
the  skull,  but  fail  to  see  the  "non-poisonous  to 
human." 

The  "ad. -smith"  of  No.  3  is  trying  to  convince 
the  public  that  his  fountain  pen  will  not  blot. 
He  shows  us  a  cut  of  his  pen  doing  just  what  he 
wants  us  to  believe  it  will  not  do.  If  we  could 
look  at  the  cut,  then  forget  it  entirely  and  read 
the  text  without  being  biased  by  the  cut,  this 
form  of  argumentation  might  be  successful,  but 
that  is  not  the  way  in  which  we  think. 

108 


FUSION 


Advertisement  No.  4  apparently  illustrates  the 
proprietor  of  the  rug  company  as  an  escaped  con- 
vict. The  text  makes  no  reference  to  this  fact, 
but  tries  to  impress  upon  us  the  idea  that  this  is 
the  gentleman  with  whom  we  should  deal. 

Advertisement  No.  5  is  the  advertisement  of 
a  sweet-smelling  cigar.  The  way  the  designer  of 
the  advertisement  goes  about  it  to  convince  us 
that  his  cigars  are  sweet  smelling  is  to  show 


No.  3. 

us  Uncle  Sam  smoking  a  cigar  which  evidently 
has  a  very  bad  odor.  In  small  type  he  asserts 
that  his  cigars  are  not  so  bad,  but  I  would  not 
have  read  that  part  of  the  advertisement  unless 
I  had  had  an  abnormal  interest  in  poor  adver- 
tisements. 

Advertisement  No.  6  represents  the  "restful 
racycle,"  and  does  so  by  displaying  a  lady  on 
such  a  wheel  being  chased  by  an  infuriated  bull- 
dog. One  of  the  most  unpleasant  things  that 
can  happen  to  a  bicycle  rider,  and  one  of  the 

109 


THE     THEORY    OF    ADVERTISING 


things  which  might  deter  some  ladies  from  buy- 
ing a  bicycle,  is  this  fact  that  bicycle  riders  are 
liable  to  be  chased  by  dogs.  The  writer  of  this 
advertisement,  by  means  of  this  illustration, 


LEFT  BEHIND. 

Our  plan  of  selling  all  carpets  from 
manufacturer  to  consumer  leaves  our 
competitors  out  of  the  race. 

Ingrains,  Brussels,  Velvets,  Aimin- 
isters,  Moqucttcs,  Davonnierres,  are 
all  on  the  list. 

If  it's  Rugs,  that's  onr  specialty;  in 
fact,  we  make  it  a  point  to  furnish 
homes  complete  with  floor  coverings 
that  are  proper,  and  we  do  not  dupli- 
cate fine  patterns. 

Carpet  cleaning  and  laying,  feather 
renovating.  Rugs  from  old  carpets. 

Petoskey  Rug  Mfg. 
and  Carpet  Go,  Ltd, 

455   Mitchell   Street. 


No.  4. 

practically  tells  every  possible  customer  to  hesi- 
tate before  she  buys  this  wheel,  because,  if  she 
buys  it,  she  is  likely  to  be  chased  by  dogs. 

In  advertisement  No.  7  the  author  is  trying  to 
bring  out  the  point  that  insects  do  not  infest 
this  particular  brand  of  rolled  oats.  In  his  illus- 

I  JO 


FUSION 


tration  he  shows  great  crowds  of  insects  swarm- 
ing about  it.  If  you  examine  the  advertisement 
you  see  that,  although  the  insects  do  have  a 
particular  liking  for  this  kind  of  oats,  they  can- 
not get  at  them  till  the  can  is  once  opened.  To 
my  mind  this  brand  of  rolled  oats  and  insects 


.FOR  UNCLE  SAM'S  BIRTHDAY 
anniversary  you;  don't  want  a  'stlnka- 
dora. .  Do. honor  to  your  country.  In; a' 
delicious  and  sweet  smpke  on  July 
4th  by  smoking  one  of  our  exquisitely: 
flavored  Billy  Walton's  5c  Straight 
and  Grand  Ducbesse  cigars  They  are 
the  best  cigars  'to  be  found  In.  t»wn 
and  are  lust  what  you  want  tor  a 
holiday  treat  for  your  friends.-  Try 
thehi  by  all  means. 

AV.     WM.  M.  WAI  TON. 


No.  5. 

are  so  firmly  united  that  I  cannot   think  of  the 
food  without  thinking  of  the  insects. 

Ordinarily  the  Quaker  Oats  advertisement 
has  been  identified  by  the  presence  of  the  good 
Quaker.  He  looks  strong,  hardy,  clean,  and 
honest.  In  No.  8  we  have  a  portrait  of  a  man 
who  is  disgusting  in  appearance.  He  fuses  with 
oats,  and  the  product  is  something  which  is  not 
appetizing  and  is  a  food  which  I  do  not  care  to 

in 


THE    THEORY    OF    ADVERTISING 

taste.  I  have  always  thought  of  Quaker  Oats 
.as  something  particularly  clean  and  healthful, 
and  my  idea  was  determined  in  part  by  asso- 
.ciating  the  food  with  the  Quaker.  When  this 
advertisement  is  before  me,  I  think  that  Quaker 
•Oats  are  fit  to  eat  only  on  condition  that  I 


RIDE  THE  RESTFUL 

Racycle 

RIGID 

REASONABLE 
RADICALLY  RIGHT 


Reinforce!  Racycle's  Reputation, 
Rlderi  Remember  RACYCLB 

Rates  to  Resi- 


prints  of  Royal  Racjrclej. 

MIAMI  CYCLE  & 

MFQ. .  COMPANY 

Middletown,  O. 


No.  6. 

.abstract  the  thought  of  the  food   from    that  of 
this  filthy-looking  specimen  of  humanity. 

In  an  advertisement  of  food  products  the  cut 
is  comparable  to  the  waiter  in  a  restaurant.  We 
know  that  the  waiter  does  not  prepare  the  food, 
yet  he  is  the  representative  of  the  kitchen,  and 
we  will  not  enter  a  restaurant  if  the  waiter  looks 
repulsive.  In  a  similar  manner  we  know  that 
the  cut  in  an  advertisement  has  nothing  to  do 
-with  the  food  advertised,  but  the  cut  is  the  rep- 

112 


FUSION 


resentative  of  the  food,  and  we  do  not  want  the 
food  if  its  representative  looks  repulsive. 


THIS  IS  THE  ORIGINAL 


HPACKAGE  OF  CEREALS 

Sa/rje  Quantity  3$  coptair}e<t  iff  usual- 
'^^N     Size  two-f>ounc(  Package 


For  Sale  by  Grocers  Everywhere 

The  careful  preparation  given  the  contents  of  this  package,  justifies 
the  manufacturers  in  claiming  that  it  will  keep  indefinitely  in  good 
condition,  and  upon  serving,  present  a  flavor  and  bouquet,  un- 
equaled  by  any  cereal  ever  offered  to  the  public. 

Directions  for  Opening  And  Cooking  on  Each  Can 

THE  GREAT  WESTERN  CEREAL  COMPANY,  Chicago,  Ills. 


No.  7. 


All  the  advertisements  here  reproduced  seem 
to  be  constructed  in  total  disregard  to  the  great 
principle  of  fusion  which  plays  an  important 


THE     THEORY    OF    ADVERTISING 

part  in  all  our  thinking.  In  all  these  advertise- 
ments the  cut  and  the  text  (e.  g.,  in  the  first 
advertisement  the  deaths  and  funerals  and  the 


Short-sighted  man — lacks  penetration. 

He  is  a  short-sighted  man  indeed  who  cannot  see  the  other  end  of  the  medical  breakfast  food  hibii. 
Any  food  that  coddles  digestion  all  the  time  must  weaken  digestion  .at  last  by  sheer  lack  of  exercise. 

A  strong  digestion  might  not  be  greatly  weakened  by  a  diet  of  rich  foods, — but  even  the  strongest 
digestion  cannot  withstand  the  weakening  effects  of  laboratory  foods. 

Only  a  short-sighted  man  will  deny  that  natural  digestion  must  be  relied  on  after  all  for  assimilation 
of  the  food  elements  which  the  body  demands,— and  the  better  the  digestion  the  better  the  prospect  of 
health.  The  way  to  preserve  the  strength  of  natural  digestion  is  to  offer  it  only  natural  food. 

The  one  natural  food  thai  fills  every  need  of  body  and  nerve  and  brain,— that  gives  every  food 
element  in  exactly  the  proportions  demanded  by  the  human  system,— it 

Quaker  Oa^ts 

No  other  food  has  ever  been  granted  that  steadfast  favor  in  which  Quaker  Oats  is  held  it  t  million 
well-served  breakfast  tables. 

You'll  see  the  reason,  unlesa  you  ire 

A  SHORT-SIGHTED  MAN. 
No.   8. 

tablet  advertisement)  fuse,  and  each  plays  its 
part  in  forming  the  total  impression.  We  are 
not  able  to  think  of  the  text  without  thinking  of 
or  being  influenced  by  the  illustration. 

114 


FUSION 


The  ordinary  man  and  woman  are  not  accus- 
tomed to  critical  logical  thinking.  They  are 
not  accustomed  to  consider  an  object  or  argu- 
ment on  its  own  merits  and  independent  of  all 
other  things.  They  are  more  inclined  to  take 
objects,  arguments,  and  events  in  their  entirety. 
They  fuse  all  the  impressions  of  a  particular 
situation  into  one  total  impression,  and  are 
influenced  by  events  in  their  totality  without 
being  able  to  analyze  the  elements  which  have 
united  to  form  the  whole.  If  those  who  construct 
and  place  advertisements  would  consider  this 
principle  of  fusion,  they  would  be  more  careful 
in  their  choice  of  mediums,  in  the  association 
of  advertisements,  in  the  make-up  and  in  the 
construction  of  the  individual  advertisements. 


VIII 
PSYCHOLOGICAL  EXPERIMENT 

THE  introduction  of  the  experimental  method 
is  a  modern  innovation  in  the  case  of  all  the 
sciences.  Occasional  experiments  had  been  m%ie 
in  each  of  the  sciences  before  experimental 
laboratories  were  established,  but  with  the  found- 
ing of  laboratories  for  experimental  purposes 
physics,  chemistry,  geology,  physiology  and 
botany  became  established  on  a  new  and  firmer 
basis. 

Occasional  and  haphazard  experiments  had 
been  made  in  psychology  ever 

since   the   days   of   Aristotle,    but 
Psychological 

Laborator  no  systematic  attempt  had  been 
made  to  apply  experimental  meth- 
ods to  psychology  till  1880.  At  this  date 
Professor  Wundt,  of  Leipzig,  established  the  first 
psychological  laboratory.  Since  that  date  simi- 
lar laboratories  have  been  established  in  all  the 
leading  universities  of  the  world. 

To  avoid  error  as  to  the  conception  of  the 
function  of  a  psychological  laboratory,  it  should 
be  held  firmly  in  mind  that  psychological  labo- 
ratories have  nothing  to  do  with  telepathy, 
spiritism,  clairvoyance,  animal  magnetism,  mes- 
merism, fortune  telling,  crystal  gazing,  palmistry, 
astrology,  witchcraft,  or  with  any  other  of  the 

116 


PSYCHOLOGICAL   EXPERIMENT 

relics  of  the  cults  of  mediaeval  superstition.  It 
is  true  that  the  question  of  occult  thought  trans- 
ference in  its  various  forms  has  been  put  to  the 
test  in  a  few  of  the  laboratories,  but  as  none  of 
these  superstitions  have  been  able  to  stand  the 
test  they  have  been  discarded  as  worthless  hy- 
potheses. Quite  extensive  and  elaborate  tests  have 
been  made  with  telepathy,  but  as  the  results 
secured  were  so  meager,  it  is  safe  to  say  that  there 
is  not  a  director  of  any  psychological  laboratory 
in  Germany  or  America  (most  of  the  laboratories 
are  in  these  two  countries)  who  has  any  faith  in  it. 
In  frequent  association  with  the  cults  men- 
tioned above  are  certain  other  phenomena  which 
have  proven  themselves  to  be  worthy  of  con- 
sideration and  which  do  occupy  a  place  in  a 
laboratory.  Among  such  phenomena  are  hypno- 
tism and  what  might  be  classed  as  prodigies  or 
"freaks."  To-day  no  one  doubts  the  existence 
of  hypnotism,  but  it  is  understood  as  something 
so  different  from  what  it  was  formerly  supposed 
to  be  that  it  is  robbed  of  its  mysterious  and 
uncanny  connections.  A  mathematical  prodigy 
is  not  regarded  as  an  individual  who  holds  rela- 
tionship with  an  evil  spirit,  but  as  a  person 
abnormally  developed  in  a  particular  direction. 
Hypnotism  and  prodigies  play  such  a  subordi- 
nate part  in  the  workings  of  a  laboratory  that 
it  would  not  be  worth  while  to  mention  them  at 
all  if  it  were  not  for  the  fact  that  they  are  so  fre- 

117 


THE    THEORY    OF    ADVERTISING 

quently  associated  with  the  theories  which  were 
mentioned  above  and  which  can  show  no  good 
reason  for  their  existence. 

Psychological  experiments  are  most  frequently 
carried  on  in  laboratories  especially  constructed 
for  this  purpose.  The  laboratory  for  some  ex- 
periments may  be  merely  a  convenient  place  for 
meeting  and  a  place  free  from  undesirable  dis- 
turbances, or  it  may  be  rooms  fitted  up  with  the 
most  elaborate  sort  of  instruments  needed.  In 
experiments  in  which  the  element  of  time  enters, 
instruments  are  employed  which  record  one  one- 
thousandth  of  a  second  with  the  greatest  accur- 
acy. 

The  nature  of  the  experiment  determines  the 
kind  of  apparatus  needed,  the  number  of  persons 
who  should  take  part,  the  method  to  be  pursued, 
and  the  place  to  be  chosen.  Great  ingenuity  has 
been  shown  in  constructing  apparatus,  devising 
methods,  and  controlling  the  conditions  of  experi- 
ments. The  experiment  may  be  simple  and  call 
for  almost  no  equipment,  or  it  may  be  intri- 
cate and  call  for  years  of  investigation  and  an 
enormous  expenditure  of  money  to  create  the 
necessary  conditions  for  its  successful  investi- 
gation. 

In  general  a  psychological  experiment  is  a 
psychological  observation  made  under  ' '  standard 
conditions."  Standard  conditions  are  those 
which  may  be  repeated  and  that  are  of  such  a 

118 


PSYCHOLOGICAL    EXPERIMENT 

nature  that  the  various  conditions  are  under  the 
control  of  the  experimenter.     This  makes  it  possi- 
ble for  one  investigator  to  perform 

,   an   experiment  and   to    have    his 
Psychological          t         *c    « «  1 

-r      .  work  verified  by  others  or  to  show 

Expenment 

wherein  the  first  experimenter  has 

erred.  Standard  conditions  are  ordinarily  of  such 
a  nature  that  they  may  be  varied,  that  non- 
essential  and  confusing  conditions  may  be  elimi- 
nated, the  various  causes  investigated  one  by  one, 
and  the  real  causes  given  and  the  object  of  the 
experiment  explained. 

The  nature  of  a  psychological  experiment  (the 
kinds  of  problems  that  may  be  attacked,  the 
method  of  investigation,  the  kind  of  results 
secured,  and  the  treatment  of  the  result)  can 
be  understood  better  by  giving  a  concrete  exam- 
ple than  by  any  complete  description.  The 
following  example  is  given  because  it  is  one  that 
is  of  special  significance  to  the  readers  of  these 
pages  and  because  it  is  so  simple  that  it  can  be 
fully  described  in  few  words. 

The  general  passenger  agent  of  one  of  the 
.  leading  railroad  systems  was  con- 

T  e  Faces  structin&  a  new  t^me  table  for  the 
entire  system.  A  dispute  arose 
as  to  which  of  two  faces  of  the  same  kinds  of 
type  could  be  the  more  easily  read.  The  body 
of  the  type  was  the  same  in  both  cases,  but  the 
face  of  the  one  was  heavier  than  that  of  the  other. 

119 


THE     THEORY     OF    ADVERTISING 


o  CD  o  ID    .  o  m  o  in  00  iri 

N30IOO      •  <- N3  i— ^O- r- CM 

LO  LT>  W     '.  H9  CM  CM  »-  T-  CM 


,*J      in^inin-NiO'-'OmNO'O 

"2       »o,—  t— •w-KsmmONO*"    •  •*• 

•  —          hOCOCMY—     *  CM   M    M    M    O    O    ON    !  00      '     1     !     *     ! 


CDCDCDCMr-r-.COLr>Lr>CDH30t 

T-Oin>»roT-om'<»rocM.-< 


r- 

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:  :SS  :  :S  :  :  '-55  :  :£S8g 


5-J? 


*jj  MMMMOOOOOOOONl^O\^  O>00  00  00  OO  CO    tx  r*  t*»  l-*vO    u^.OO 


u 
JB    e2  ; 

:  co  :   :  co  :oooo  :cooo 

':  ^  :°  igS  :  :g     i 
:   :  r^  :  i->  :  coco  :  :  co      : 

•g     S3  : 
lij     O.CM  : 

:  «  ::;•«::  o  o 

.'     •'  O     •'  oo     •   M   O     •     •'  O          • 

.       -    „       .     ^-     .    (^  M      •       •    O 

:  :  o  :  o\  :  ON  ON  :  ;  ON     : 

S    >.  •'  •  • 

«  :  :  : 

jj  j  j||.j:||fi 

:::::::::  :  S  t  S 

)f  Type  usec 

.  .  Laclede  .  .  . 

.  .Meadville... 
.  .  Wheelme.. 

a  «'  :  «  &  :  :  :  :  5 

2g    ;|  tZS^O     E   }! 

ir^rlrllifSi 

£       >    '•    '•    '• 

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•:::::::::  t  «»  t 

;    rt-irt 

&     f    oo  - 
C/3      2        " 

1?  &  S  5.^.  ^  t:^  ?L  J^ 

^cS<»o>8'o-v2^N>N: 

l»MP,nMMnh,H        11 

|   8!:8 

ioro»o 

!;;';=  *!  5= 

.    .  o    .  co    -  coco    •    •  in 
•    ••*»••  CD    •  CMIO    •    •  o 

:   :  LO  :  co  :  coco  :   :  r-. 

(A         «n    •     • 

:  m  :  :  m    o  o     o  o 

|  :*  «  :*::«>:::  9     : 

H     "  :  : 

:*:  :•«    «-,    <o«o 

j  |*1  H  *":!:"     : 

Js  s*: 

coco  : 

is  i  U  IS  ;-:s  i 

iminiin  ij 

120 


PSYCHOLOGICAL  EXPERIMENT 


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to   •    •    •    -e>-   •    -»f>i 
'  "       ** 


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-52   •    ' 
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>>>>£ 


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:£3  :?S?    S8  :    8  :  :    §  ' 


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•in     ioir>     VOID 


S§  :  :  ;S  :  :^  :S  :  J,  55 

OOOO    •     •     -'07>    •     •  ^    -CD    |  "  O 


121 


THE     THEORY    OF    ADVERTISING 

The  light-face  type  did  not  crowd  the  figures  so 
closely  together  and  there  was  more  white  space 
around  each  figure  and  letter.  It  was  argued 
by  the  advocates  of  this  style  of  type  that  the 
white  space  made  the  type  stand  out  plainer  and 
that  it  could  be  read  more  easily.  The  advocates 
of  the  heavy -face  type  argued  that  that  style  of 
type  looked  larger,  that  it  used  more  ink,  and  that 
the  figures  could  therefore  be  more  easily  read. 
It  was  impossible  to  decide  which  was  the  more 
legible  without  putting  them  to  an  authoritative 
test.  For  this  purpose  specimens  of  both  styles 
were  sent  to  the  psychological  laboratory  of  the 
Northwestern  University,  with  the  request  that 
each  style  be  tested  as  to  its  relative  legibility. 

The  method  adopted  was  to  have  pages  taken 
from  the  time-table  set  up  in  both  styles  of  type. 
A  number  of  persons  were  then  requested  to  read 
the  pages  as  fast  as  possible.  The  manner  of 
reading  was  the  same  as  that  ordinarily  employed 
by  the  traveling  public  with  the  exception  that 
the  reading  was  done  aloud  and  that  the  entire 
page  was  read  instead  of  a  part  of  it.  I  con- 
ducted all  experiments,  was  provided  with  dupli- 
cate sheets,  recorded  all  errors,  and  took  the 
exact  time  of  reading  with  a  stop  watch. 

Two  full  pages  were  taken  from  the  time-table 
and  each  page  was  set  up  in  both  styles  of  type, 
thus  making  four  sheets,  of  which  two  were  set 
up  with  small-face  type  and  two  with  large.  Each 

122 


PSYCHOLOGICAL   EXPERIMENT 


sheet  was  marked  with  a  letter,  and  the  four 
sheets  are  indicated  as  Exhibit  C,  Exhibit  D, 
Exhibit  E,  and  Exhibit  F,  respectively. 

Exhibits  C  and  F  have  small-face  type,  as 
shown  in  Table  I.  Exhibits  D  and  E  have  large- 
face  type,  as  shown  in  Table  II.  The  first  four 
subjects  are  indicated  by  initial  letters  of  their 
names,  viz.,  R.  C.,  N.  Z.,  J.  S.,  and  D.  W.  The 
order  in  which  the  pages  were  read,  the  time  re- 
quired, and  the  number  of  errors  made  are 
indicated  by  the  following  table: 


C. 

D. 

E. 

F. 

'","',',',  .* 

f 

'    8" 

"'"fjl'r  ') 

22  2      (19  errors; 

N.Z.    <j 

21  3      17  errors; 

i      n  r  Q             \ 

"  |"  "!>/;/•     \ 

15  3°    v2      rrors; 





22'  56''  (13  errors) 

D.  W.  <j 

i      n  (                \ 

20  10    (.9  errors; 

*       (/  .               , 

39      7  errors 

Total  time  for  four  persons  to  read  small  face  type 150'  12" 

Total  time  for  four  persons  to  read  large  lace  type 145'  22" 

Excess  of  time  required  for  four  persons  to  read  small  face  type  .  4'  40" 

Per  cent,  of  time  lost  by  four  persons  in  reading  small  face  type  .  3^ 

Total  errors  made  by  four  persons  reading  small  face  type       .     .  162 

Total  errors  made  by  four  persons  reading  large  face  type       .     .  104 

Excess  of  errors  made  by  four  persons  in  reading  small  face  type  58 

Per  cent,  of  excess  of  errors  in  reading  small  face  type   ....  55! 

The  four  persons  who  took  part  in  the  ex- 
periment as  described  above  hardly  knew  what 
was  expected  of  them  and  had  had  no  experi- 

123 


THE    THEORY    OF    ADVERTISING 

ence  in  such  work.  (Special  mention  will  be 
made  of  R.  C.  below.) 

Two  additional  persons  were  tested  and  each 
read  over  the  list  of  stations  and  tried  reading 
parts  of  the  pages  before  beginning  the  experi- 
ment. After  this  preliminary  drill  they  read 
the  sheets  as  described  above,  but  read  only  the 
first  half  of  each  sheet. 

The  order  in  which  the  sheets  were  read,  the 
time  required,  and  the  number  of  errors  made  are 
indicated  in  the  following  table.  The  persons 
are  indicated,  by  C.  W.  and  E.  S.  respectively: 


C. 

D. 

E. 

F. 

;;;::;:: 

¥'*  "''  (        rr  r  1 

34     (2  errors; 

f 

51 

... 
.... 

E.  S.     4 





Total  time  for  two  persons  to  read  the  small  face  type 31'  28" 

Total  time  for  two  persons  to  read  the  large  face  type 29'  34" 

Excess  of  time  required  to  read  the  small  face  type      ..'....  i'  54" 

Per  cent,  of  time  lost  by  using  small  face  type 6£ 

Total  numher  of  errors  made  by  two  persons  in  reading  small  face  type  35 

Total  number  of  errors  made  by  two  persons  in  reading  large  face  type  19 

Excess  of  errors  made  by  two  persons  in  reading  small  face  type  .     .     .  16 

Per  cent,  of  increase  of  errors  by  use  of  small  face  type 84 

Of  the  first  four  subjects  R.  C.  is  an  employee 
in  the  general  passenger  department  of  the  rail- 
road for  which  the  folder  was  being  investigated. 
He  was  familiar  with  the  names  of  the  stations 
and  was  accustomed  to  reading  this  particular 
time-table.  The  first  page  which  he  read  was 

124 


PSYCHOLOGICAL    EXPERIMENT 

one  with  the  small  type.  The  other  subject 
who  began  with  the  small  type  was  my  brother 
(J.  S.).  He  knew  what  the  experiment  was  and 
was  determined  to  read  the  page  in  less  time  than 
any  of  the  others.  He  made  very  many  mistakes, 
but  read  the  first  half  of  the  first  sheet  (F)  in  six 
minutes  and  fifty-two  seconds.  None  of  the  other 
four  subjects  even  approximated  such  a  speed  or 
made  so  many  mistakes —  thirty-three.  He  found 
that  he  could  not  maintain  such  a  speed  through- 
out the  experiment.  The  two  of  the  four  subjects 
who  began  with  the  large-face  type,  namely, 
N.  Z.  and  D.  W.,  were  entirely  unfamiliar  with 
the  time-table  and  lost  time  in  getting  well  under 
way.  Under  these  circumstances  it  seems  fair 
to  regard  the  first  page,  which  each  of  the  first 
four  read,  as  merely  practice  sheets  and  to  elimi- 
nate them  in  the  final  results. 

Eliminating  the  first  sheet  which  each  of  the 

four  first  subjects  dare,  and  unit- 
Summary         .  if 

ing  the  results  for  all  the  six  sub- 
jects, we  get  the  following: 

Total  time  for  six  persons  to  read  small  face  type 147'  u* 

Total  time  for  six  persons  to  read  large  face  type         129'  42" 

Excess  of  time  required  to  read  small  face  type 17'  29" 

Per  cent,  of  time  lost  by  using  small  face  type 133 

Total  errors  for  six  persons  reading  small  face  type 132 

Total  errors  for  six  persons  reading  large  face  type 91 

Excess  of  errors  for  small  face  type 41 

Per  cent,  of  increase  of  errors  by  use  of  small  face  type       ...  45 

These  figures  make  it  clear  that  the  large-face 
type  is  easier  to  read  and  is  not  so  subject  to 
error  as  the  small-face  type. 

125 


THE    THEORY    OF    ADVERTISING 

It  should  be  added  that  two  of  the  six  per- 
sons complained  that  the  small  type  was  hard 
on  their  eyes,  and  three  thought  that  the  small- 
face  type  was  much  harder  to  read  than  the  large- 
face  type. 

The  test  with  R.  C.  was  made  in  the  office  of 
the  president  of  the  railroad  concerned,  and 
twice  during  the  experiments  R.  C.  was  inter- 
rupted by  persons  calling  at  the  door.  The 
duplicate  copy  used  with  him  was  not  accuiate, 
and  so  the  number  of  errors  which  he  made  in 
reading  was  not  secured  with  certainty.  With 
the  other  five  persons  tested  no  such  interrup- 
tions occurred,  and  the  number  of  errors  made 
could  be  accurately  recorded.  These  five  were 
tested  in  quiet  rooms,  free  from  all  distractions. 

E.  S.  was  able  to  read  so  rapidly  that  it  was 
very  difficult  to  record  his  errors.  Possibly  he 
made  more  errors  than  the  figures  show. 

The  figures  given  above  are  the  results  secured 
during  the  last  ten  days.  Some 

1  lona        weeks  before  sheets  had  been  se- 

Evidence  .        -    .      -      -       ,    1          . 

cured,    printed   in   both   styles   of 

type  —  a  page  of  one  time-table  set  up  in  one 
style  of  type  and  a  different  page  set  up  in  the 
other  style.  The  total  number  of  trains  in  the 
two  pages  were  almost  identical,  and  the  names 
of  the  stations  were  apparently  equally  difficult  to 
pronounce.  So  far  as  I  could  judge,  the  results 
secured  with  these  pages  were  trustworthy,  but 

126 


PSYCHOLOGICAL   EXPERIMENT 

to  remove  any  possibility  of  doubt  I  had  the 
pages  prepared  as  described  in  the  experiment 
above.  The  results  secured  in  the  two  cases 
are  in  general  the  same.  The  experiment  as 
described  is  therefore  a  verification  of  the  first  ex- 
periment. We  thus  have  the  results  secured 
from  twelve  subjects  instead  of  from  six.  The 
total  result  secured  from  the  first  six  persons 
showed  that  the  heavy  type  could  be  read  123-5 
per  0^nt.  faster  than  the  lighter-face  type.  The 
per  cent,  secured  with  the  last  six  subjects  was 
13  1-3  per  cent.  These  results  are  more  uniform 
than  might  have  been  expected.  Two  of  the 
twelve  subjects  read  the  small-face  type  faster 
than  the  large-face.  As  great  a  number  of  ab- 
normal results  as  two  out  of  twelve  may  ordi- 
narily be  expected.  To  overcome  such  errors  a 
large  number  of  persons  should  take  part  in  the 
experiment  and  then  in  the  general  average  sin- 
gle exceptions  are  less  disturbing. 

The  marked  contrast  in  the  results  secured 
from  the  two  kinds  of  faces  of  the  same  size  type 
is  found  in  the  number  of  errors  which  the  readers 
made,  the  difference  being  45  per  cent,  or  more. 
The  errors  were  ordinarily  in  misreading  the 
time.  Frequently  the  time  was  connected  with 
the  wrong  station.  One  person,  for  example,  read 
that  the  train  leaves  Cream  Ridge  at  7.52,  when 
in  fact  the  train  leaves  there  at  7.25  and  leaves 
Chillicothe  at  7.52.  An  error  of  that  kind  would 

127 


THE    THEORY    OF    ADVERTISING 

cause  the  would-be  passenger  to  miss  his  train. 
Mistaken  pronunciation  and  similar  minor  mis- 
takes were  not  recorded  as  errors. 

When  it  is  taken  into  consideration  that  time- 
tables are  used  as  sources  of  information  as  to 
the  times  of  trains,  and  when  it  is  discovered  that 
the  lighter  face  type  increases  the  chance  of  errors 
45  per  cent,  and  increases  the  time  necessary  to 
read  any  part  of  the  time-table  13  per  cent.,  it 
then  becomes  evident  that  such  minor  dif- 
ferences as  that  of  the  two  faces  here  given 
are  details  which  should  be  carefully  consid- 
ered. Those  who  construct  time-tables  try 
to  get  them  up  in  such  form  that  it  will  be  easy 
and  pleasant  for  the  public  to  read  them.  The 
smaller- face  type  is  harder  to  read,  as  is  shown  by 
the  two  facts  of  increase  of  time  and  increase 
of  number  of  errors  in  reading  it.  The  smaller- 
face  type  is  also  less  pleasant  reading  than  the 
heavier  face,  as  is  shown  by  the  fact  that  several 
of  the  persons  complained  that  the  small-face 
type  was  hard  on  their  eyes.  Time-tables  are 
often  read  at  night  and  by  poor  light.  This  fact 
makes  it  essential  that  the  type  should  be  of 
such  a  nature  that  it  does  not  unnecessarily 
strain  the  eyes. 

The  results  of  this  experiment  are  not  of  more 
importance  to  the  advertising  manager  of  a  rail- 
road than  they  are  to  other  advertisers  who  are 
limited  to  the  use  of  type  for  the  exploiting  of 

128 


PSYCHOLOGICAL   EXPERIMENT 

what  they  have  to  offer  to  the  public.  The  easier 
and  more  pleasant  the  type  is  to  read,  the  greater 
are  the  chances  t]iat  it  will  be  read  and  have  the 
desired  effect. 


129 


IX 

PERCEPTION 


THE  relationship    existing  between  our  minds 
and  bodies  is  one  of  the  closest   that  can  be  im- 
agined.    The  basis  of  this  relation- 

.   y?ica      ship     is     the      nervous      system. 
Basis  for  1  ..  1  .  - 

Perception  Roughly  speaking,  the  nervous 
system  consists  of  three  parts: 
the  brain,  the  nerve  endings  (sense  organs),  and 
the  fibers  connecting  the  brain  to  these  nerve 
endings.  The  brain  fills  the  skull  and  is  about 
one-fortieth  of  the  weight  of  the  entire  body. 
The  nerve  endings  are  found  in  the  so-called 
sense  organs,  that  is,  the  eyes,  the  nose,  the 
mouth,  the  ears,  and  the  skin,  and  also  in  the 
joints  and  muscles.  The  nerve  fibers  are  white, 
threadlike  bands,  which  connect  each  nerve  end- 
ing with  a  particular  part  of  the  brain,  e.g., 
the  optic  nerve  is  such  a  bundle  of  nerve 
fibers  and  it  connects  the  various  nerve  end- 
ings in  the  eye  with  specific  portions  of  the 
back  part  of  the  brain.  The  function  of  the 
nervous  system  may  be  likened  to  the  trans- 
mitter, connecting  wire,  and  receiver  of  a  tele- 
phone. The  similarity  is  striking  in  the  case  of 
all  the  nerve  endings,  but  particularly  so  in  the 
case  of  the  ear.  If  air  waves  of  a  certain  quality 
and  of  sufficient  intensity  strike  against  the 

130 


PERCEPTION 


transmitter  of  a  telephone,  they  are  propagated 
along  the  line  till  they  reach  the  receiver.  Here 
they  reassume  the  form  of  air  waves,  and  when 
heard  are  what  we  call  sound.  If  air  waves, 
vibrating  from  14  to  40,000  times  a  second,  strike 
against  our  ear,  a  corresponding  wave  is  propa- 
gated along  the  auditory  nerve  to  the  brain, 
where  by  some  unknown  process  a  sensation  of 
sound  is  awakened  which  corresponds  to  the  air 
wave,  and  is  ordinarily  referred  to  as  the  direct 
result  of  the  air 'wave,  even  if  such  a  statement 
is  challenged  on  the  ground  that  a  sensation  is 
purely  mental  and  an  air  wave  is  purely 
physical,  and  one  cannot  be  the  cause  of  the 
other.  For  our  purpose  it  will  be  sufficient  to 
regard  this  and  all  other  sensations  as  the  direct 
result  of  the  contact  of  the  outer  world  with  our 
nerve  endings  and  particularly  with  our  sense 
organs.  This  contact  with  the  outer  world  seems 
to  be  the  cause  of  the  sensation,  because  when 
there  is  no  contact  there  is  no  sensation,  and 
when  there  is  contact,  there  ordinarily  is  sensation ; 
the  more  intense  the  contact  the  more  intense  the 
sensation,  and  the  quality  of  the  sensation 
changes  with  the  quality  of  the  contact. 

The  first  time  a  child  opens  its 
eyes  the  ether  waves  strike  against 

^  the    retina    in    which     the    nerve 

Perception 

endings  are  located.     Here  a  cur- 
rent is  set  up  which  is  propagated  to  the  brain. 


THE     THEORY    OF    ADVERTISING 

Then  a  pure  sensation  of  sight  occurs.  The 
nature  of  the  sensation  depends  entirely  on  the 
nature  of  the  light  and  the  current  which  it  sets 
up.  There  is  no  recognition  of  the  light,  there 
is  no  comparison  of  it  with  other  sensations,  and 
no  fusing  of  it  into  former  sensations.  This 
is  the  only  really  pure  sensation  of  sight  which 
the  child  will  ever  have,  for  its  next  sensation 
of  sight  will  be  seen  in  relation  to  the  first  sensa- 
tion. It  would  be  affirming  too  much  to  say 
that  the  child  recognizes  or  compares  this  second 
.sensation,  but  it  is  quite  certain  that  this  second 
sensation  is  to  a  very  limited  degree  modified 
because  of  the  preceding  one.  The  second 
experience  is  added  to  from  the  previous  one  and 
so  is  not  a  pure  sensation,  but  is  a  perception. 
i A  perception  is  a  fusion  of  sensations  with  former 
;experiences  and  embraces  comparison,  recogni- 
tion, etc.  When  the  term  "perception"  is  used, 
special  reference  is  intended  to  the  sensation  or 
sensations  which  are  received  through  the  sense 
organs  and  which  enter  into  the  total  product 
called  a  perception.  When  the  term  "apper- 
ception" is  used,  special  reference  is  intended 
to  the  comparison,  recognition,  and  other  proc- 
esses which  are  dependent  upon  former  experi- 
ence and  which  are  not  caused  directly  by  sen- 
sations received  from  the  sense  organs,  but  are 
added  by  the  mind  to  the  total  product,  which 
in  this  case  is  called  an  apperception,  but  is  the 

132 


PERCEPTION 


identical  product  which  in  the  other  aspects  is 
called  a  perception.  Thus  the  terms ' '  perception ' ' 
and  ' '  apperception ' '  may  be  used  to  indicate  the 
same  process,  but  the  different  terms  emphasize 
different  aspects  of  the  same  thing.  In  the  case 
of  a  young  child,  perceptions  are  largely  sensa- 
tional, while  former  experiences  play  a  small 
part.  When  we  come  into  contact  with  new 
objects  or  come  into  new  experiences,  we  depend 
upon  sensations  to  form  a  large  part  of  our  per- 
ceptions, and  the  former  experiences  add  rela- 
tively a  small  part  to  the  total  product.  The 
first  time  we  saw  an  orange,  we  saw  it  merely  as 
an  object  of  a  particular  color.  Then  we  touched 
it,  and  our  perception  of  it  became  the  perception 
of  an  object  with  a  particular  color  and  a  par- 
ticular shape  and  touch.  Then  we  tasted  and 
smelt  it,  and  each  of  these  new  sensations  added 
a  new  element  to  our  perception.  Now,  as  we 
see  an  orange  in  the  distance,  we  perceive  it  as 
an  object  having  a  certain  color,  touch,  taste, 
odor,  weight,  etc.  The  only  sensation  that  we 
have,  as  the  orange  is  in  the  distance,  is  one  of 
sight,  but  our  perception  contains  these  other 
elements  which  we  add  from  our  former  experi- 
ence. Little  by  little  the  elements  added  to 
perception  by  sensation  decrease  and  the  ele- 
ments added  by  former  experience  increase  till 
we  can  get  a  good  perception  of  an  orange  even 
if  it  is  at  a  great  distance  from  us  and  if  it  is  in 

133 


THE     THEORY    OF    ADVERTISING 

poor  light.  The  process  continues  and  we 
begin  to  use  symbols  for  the  object.  Thus  the 
spoken  word  ''orange"  is  sufficient  to  give  us 
a  perception  of  the  object.  A  picture  may 
represent  the  original,  and  later  the  spoken  and 
printed  or  written  word  may  be  sufficient  to 
bring  a  perfect  perception  to  our  minds.  As  is 
evident,  a  long  process  of  development  is  neces- 
sary before  the  symbol  (picture,  spoken  and 
written  word)  can  take  the  place  of  the  original 
object.  The  symbol  has  no  symbolic  significa- 
tion, and  becomes  the  object  of  the  sensation 
itself  unless  it  typifies  to  the  persons  some- 
thing which  they  have  met  in  their  former  experi- 
ence. Thus  a  Chinese  letter  is  to  me  no  symbol, 
but  is  a  group  of  lines.  As  I  look  at  it  I  receive 
the  same  sensation  that  a  Chinaman  does,  but 
the  perception  is  different  because  he  adds  more 
from  his  former  experience  than  I  do.  If  a 
geologist  finds  a  rare  specimen,  it  becomes  to  him 
an  object  of  great  delight,  because  the  simple 
sensation  of  sight  has  added  to  itself  many 
elements  from  the  geologist's  former  experience 
which  make  the  perception  very  different  from 
the  simple  sensation.  To  his  son,  however,  the 
specimen  may  be  nothing  more  than  a  stone  which 
is  good  for  throwing  at  birds.  The  sensations 
which  we  receive  from  an  object  may  be  a  very 
minor  part  in  our  perception  of  it. 

The  distinction  between  the  terms  "  perception" 
134 


PERCEPTION 


and  "idea"  is  very  small.  If  an  orange  is  -before 
me,  I  perceive  the  orange,  and  if  a  symbol  of  an 
orange  is  before  me  and  I  think  of  the  orange, 
I  am  still  said  to  perceive  it.  If,  however,  the 
object  and  its  symbol  are  absent  and  I  still  think 
of  it,  I  am  said  to  have  an  idea  of  it  in  my  mind. 
This  distinction  is  of  very  minor  importance  and 
the  terms  may  be  used  interchangeably. 

Whether  we  are  thinking  of  present  or  absent 
objects, —  whether   our   thought   is   in   the  form 

of   perceptions   or    of    ideas, —  it   is 
We  Think  ,    .  r 

.     T  ,  certain    that    a  large   part    of    our 

Things  thinking  is  determined  by  the 
sensations  which  come  to  us 
through  eye  and  ear,  and  the  other  sense  organs. 
We  first  become  acquainted  with  objects  through 
the  sensations  which  we  receive  from  them,  and 
when  we  think  of  them  afterward  we  think  in 
terms  of  sensations.  If  I  should  try  to  learn 
about  a  new  kind  of  fruit  which  was  discovered 
in  Africa,  I  could  acquire  the  knowledge  of  it 
in  two  different  ways:  I  could  secure  some  of 
the  fruit  and  then  receive  all  the  sensations  from 
it  possible.  I  would  look  at  it,  touch  it,  lift  it, 
smell  it,  bite  it,  taste  it.  This  would  be  the  best 
way  to  learn  of  it.  If  this  were  impossible  I 
might  read  descriptions  and  see  pictures  of  it 
and  then  I  would  think  of  it  (have  ideas  of  it) 
in  terms  of  touch,  weight,  smell,  and  taste  which 
were  taken  from  former  experiences  in  which 


THE    THEORY    OF    ADVERTISING 

similar    objects   were     present     to    my    senses. 
Whether  we  think  by  means  of  perceptions  or 
by  means  of  ideas,  the  original  material  of  thought 
and  the  forms  of  thought  come  to  us  in  sensations. 
The    original,    easiest,  and    surest    method    of 
acquiring  knowledge  is  through  perceptions,   in 
which  the  sensations  play  a  lead- 
Picture        -ng  part      jn  many  instances  the 

Lai^aT  °b;iect  °f  thouSht  cannot  be  Pres~ 
ent  to  the  senses  and,  further- 
more, the  processes  of  thought  are  made  more 
rapid  by  substituting  symbols  for  the  original. 
Thus,  early  in  the  history  of  the  race,  a  spoken 
language  was  developed  in  which  spoken  words 
were  symbols  for  objects  of  thought.  Later, 
a  pictorial  writing  was  invented  in  which  crude 
portraits  were  made  to  symbolize  objects.  The 
latest  products  of  civilized  humanity  in  this 
direction  are,  first,  more  perfect  portraits  and, 
second,  a  form  of  printed  language  in  which  the 
original  symbolic  spoken  word  is  represented 
by  a  symbol.  This  second  form  is  the  most 
convenient  and  is  the  one  in  ordinary  use,  but 
it  should  be  observed  that  our  printed  words 
are  nothing  but  symbols  of  symbols.  The  printed 
word  is  an  uninteresting  thing  in  itself  and  is 
only  used  because  it  assists  perception  on  account 
of  its  simplicity  and  ease  of  manipulation.  It 
is  easy  to  describe  a  scene  or  a  commodity  and 
to  reduce  the  description  to  printed  form  that 

136 


PERCEPTION 


will  be  accessible  to  thousands.  It  would  be 
extremely  difficult  to  deliver  the  scene  and  the 
commodity  directly  to  these  same  people.  The 
description  and  illustration  are,  however,  not 
so  clear,  distinct,  and  interesting  as  i^  the  original 
thing  described.  The  great  danger  with  the 
printed  symbol  is  that  it  will  lose  in  perspicuity 
and  interest  what  it  gains  in  convenience.  The 
printed  word  has  almost  no  interest  for  us  in 
itself.  It  becomes  interesting  only  in  so  far  as 
it  symbolizes  interesting  things  to  us.  The 
more  the  printed  page  has  to  say  and  the  easier 
it  is  for  us  to  interpret  it,  the  more  interesting 
it  becomes. 

Whether  fortunately  or  unfortunately,  the 
advertiser  is  compelled  to  rely  wholly  on  symbols 

in  exploiting  what  he  has  to  offer. 
Advertisers       TT  -,.       ...  .-,     ,, 

He  cannot,  ordinarily,  provide  the 

Dependent  ii^t.          i_-  r. 

upon  Symbols    POSSlble  customer  Wlth  that  whlch 

he   has    to    offer   and   thus    allow 

him  to  become    acquainted  with    the    goods   in 
the  normal  and  direct  way.     He  is  compelled  to l 
substitute  the  symbol  for  the  thing  symbolized.' 
He  has  a  choice  between  two  kinds  of  symbols  - 
printed  words  and  pictorial   illustrations. 

The  first  form  of  writing  was  picture  writing, 
but  was  abandoned  because  it  was  not  so  con- 
venient as  are  the  phonetic  characters  now  in  use. 
Picture  writing  could  not  be  written  or  read  so 
easily  and  quickly  as  the  writing  in  the  characters 

137 


THE    THEORY    OF    ADVERTISING 

now  in  use  and  it  was  therefore  discarded.  Accord- 
ing to  the  standard  of  ease  of  interpretation,  all 
forms  of  type  must  be  judged.  Type  forms  must 
not  be  regarded  as  a  production  of  artistic  de- 
mands, but  as  a  product  of  the  demands  of  con- 
venience. Hundreds  of  styles  of  "artistic  type" 
have  been  brought  forth,  but  they  have  not  re- 
mained in  use,  for  they  are  confusing  to  the  eye 
and  are  not  artistic  in  the  full  sense  of  the  term. 
Those  forms  of  type  and  of  illustration  best  per- 
form their  proper  functions  which  are  so  easy  of  in- 
terpretation that  they  are  not  noticed  at  all.  There 
is  no  advantage  in  emphasizing  the  symbol,  but 
there  is  a  great  advantage  in  emphasizing  the 
thing  symbolized.  In  using  printed  forms,  the 
advertiser  supplies  a  very  small  part  to  the  total 
perception  which  he  desires  to  make,  and  he 
should  therefore  make  this  little  mean  as  much 
as  possible. 

A    series  of  experiments   were    carried    on  to 
determine  whether  white  or  black  type  made  the 
more  attractive  display  in  maga- 
zine advertisements.     Experiments 
versus  ,          .  ,  js       t. 

tin,-*    T          were  made    with    over    five  hun- 
Wnite  Type 

dred  persons.      The  background 

for  the  white  type  was  gray  in  some  cases,  but 
in  most  cases  it  was  black.  The  results  show 
that  the  ordinary  reader  is  more  likely  to  notice 
display  type  which  is  black  than  a  display  type 
of  the  same  sort  which  is  white. 

138 


PERCEPTION 


A  series  of  laboratory  experiments  were  made 
on  the  same  subject.  Specially  prepared  pages 
were  shown  for  one  seventh  of  a  second.  On 
part  of  the  sheets  black  letters  on  white  back- 
ground and  white  letters  on  black  background 
were  shown.  In  other  cases  one  half  of  the  sheet 
had  a  black  background,  with  words  in  white 
type,  and  the  other  half  of  the  sheet  had  a  white 
background  with  words  in  black  type.  Scores 
of  cards  were  constructed  in  which  all  the  possible 
combinations  of  white  and  black  were  made  and 
shown  to  a  number  of  persons  for  such  a  short 
space  of  time  that  no  one  could  perceive  all  there 
was  on  any  sheet.  Under  these  circumstances 
the  subjects  saw  what  first  attracted  their  atten- 
tion and  what  was  the  easiest  to  perceive.  The 
final  results  showed  that  the  black  letters  on  a 
white  background  were  seen  oftener  than  the 
white  type  on  a  black  background. 

It  seems  quite  certain  that,  other  things  being 
equal,  those  advertisements  will  be  the  most  often 
read  which  are  printed  in  type  which  is  the  most 
easily  read.  The  difference  in  the  appearance 
of  the  type  in  many  cases  may  be  so  small  that 
even  persons  experienced  in  the  choosing  of  type 
may  not  be  able  to  tell  which  one  is  the  more 
legible,  and  yet  the  difference  in  their  values  may 
be  great  enough  to  make  it  a  matter  of  impor- 
tance to  the  advertiser  as  to  which  type  he  shall 
use. 

139 


THE     THEORY    OF    ADVERTISING 

If  the  matter  of  the  proper  use  of  type  is  of 

importance  to  the   advertiser,   it  is  even  more 

important    that    he    should    make 

a    wise    use    of    the    illustration, 
Function  of       ,  .  ,    .     ,,  ,   .  r 

T11         ,.         which  is  the  second  form  of  sym- 
Illustration  .  J 

bol  at  his  disposal. 

The  illustration  is  frequently  used  merely 
as  a  means  of  attracting  attention,  and  its  func- 
tion as  a  symbolic  illustration  is  disregarded. 
In  a  few  cases  this  may  be  wise  and  even 
necessary,  but  when  we  consider  the  value  of  an 
illustration  as  a  symbol,  we  are  surprised  that 
illustrations  are  not  used  more  extensively  as 
well  as  more  judiciously.  The  first  form  of  writ- 
ing, as  stated  above,  was  picture  writing,  and  the 
most  simple  and  direct  form  of  graphic  representa- 
tion is  through  the  picture  and  not  through  the 
printed  word.  At  a  single  glance  we  can  usually 
read  about  four  words ;  that  is  to  say,  the  width 
of  perception  for  printed  words  is  about  four. 
At  a  single  glance  at  an  illustration  we  can  see 
as  much  as  could  be  told  in  a  whole  page  of 
printed  matter.  The  width  of  perception  for 
illustrations  is  very  much  more  extensive  than 
it  is  for  printed  forms  of  expression. 

The  illustration  may  perform  either  one  or 
both  of  two  functions.  It  may  be  a  mere  picture 
used  to  attract  attention  or  it  may  be  an  "  illus- 
tration" and  a  real  aid  to  perception  by  assisting 
the  text  to  tell  the  story  which  is  to  be  presented. 

140 


PERCEPTION 


In  the  first  case  it  would  be  called  an  irrelevant 
illustration;  in  the  second  case  it  is  relevant. 
There  have  been  several  investigations  carried 
on  to  determine  the  relative  attention  value  of 
relevant  and  irrelevant  illustrations.  Although 
the  results  thus  far  reached  are  not  so  decisive 
as  might  be  desired,  yet  it  seems  certain  that  the 
attention  value  of  relevant  illustrations  is  greater 
than  had  been  supposed  and  that  the  irrelevant 
"  picture ' '  is  frequently  not  so  potent  in  attracting 
attention  as  a  relevant  illustration  would  be. 
Under  these  circumstances  it  seems  that,  in  gen- 
eral, the  illustration  in  an  advertisement  should 
have  the  double  function  of  attracting  attention 
and  assisting  perception.  Which  one  of  these 
functions  is  the  more  important  might  be  a  profit- 
able question  for  discussion,  but  when  these  two 
functions  can  be  united  in  the  same  illustration, 
its  value  is  enhanced  twofold.  Irrelevant  illus- 
trations are  produced  merely  because  they  are 
supposed  to  attract  attention,  when  in  reality 
they  may  attract  the  attention  of  no  one  except 
the  person  who  designed  them  and  of  the  unfor- 
tunate man  who  has  to  pay  for  them.  Similarly 
there  are  many  illustrations  produced  and  in 
serted  in  advertisements  because  they  are  sup- 
posed to  assist  the  perception.  They  are  supposed 
to  tell  the  story  of  the  goods  advertised  and  to 
be  a  form  of  argumentation.  The  designer  of  the 
illustration  and  one  familiar  with  the  goods  knows 

141 


THE     THEORY    OF    ADVERTISING 

what  the  picture  stands  for,  and  so  for  him  it  is 
a  symbol  of  the  goods  and  tells  the  story  of  the 
special  advantages  of  the  goods.  To  one  un- 
acquainted with  the  illustration  and  with  the 
goods-  advertised,  the  illustration  is  no  illustration 
at  all. 

When  we  want  to  teach  a  child  the  letters  of 
the  alphabet,  we  do  not  secure  some  ''sketchy" 

and    artistic    looking    letters,    but 
Illustrations  ,,  ,.  ,  , 

_  .  we  secure  those  which  are  simple 

Intended  for    . 


the  Publi        m  oume  anc   °*  a   arge  slze- 

choose  those  which  make  a  very 

decided  sensation,  for  in  that  way  we  help  deter- 
mine the  perception.  When  the  child  becomes 
more  familiar  with  the  alphabet,  he  can  read 
small  letters  and  those  which  are  not  printed  so 
plainly.  In  forming  perceptions  there  must  at 
first  be  a  large  element  furnished  by  sensation, 
whether  the  perception  be  formed  from  an  object 
directly  or  indirectly  from  a  symbol.  Those 
who  forget  this  principle  are  likely  to  construct 
illustrations  which  do  not  illustrate.  Their  sym- 
bols are  only  symbols  for  those  who  are  well 
acquainted  with  the  goods  advertised.  As  an 
example  of  this  sort  of  illustrations  we  reproduce 
herewith  an  illustration  which  appeared  in  the 
magazines  less  than  a  year  ago. 

This  advertisement  for  F.  P.  C.  wax  (No.  i) 
seems  to  be  an  attempt  to  tell  a  great  deal  about 
the  goods  by  means  of  an  illustration.  It  took 

142 


PERCEPTION 


me  some  time  to  translate  it,   and  after  I  had 
interpreted  it  as  far  as  possible,  I  showed  it  to 


WvUW^vWWVWWWWWlW 

F.P.C 


V  V  V   V 

WAX 


The 
kind 

that  keeps' 
the  iron 

CLEAN 
(&SMOOTH 


F.P.C. 
WAX 

is  the 
Jbest 
and 
most 
econ- 
omical 
Laun- 
dry 
Wax 
sold 


your 


Put  up  in  little  wooden 
tubes  with  an  automatic 
handle  that  keeps  the 
wax  in  position  and 
prevents  waste 
The  neatest  and  nicest 
way  that  wax  can  be 
used  for  ironing  purposes 

AND 

for  5  two-cent  stamps 
we  will  send  you   2* 
sticks  to  try -After  that 
they  can  be  had  from 
dealer  'cause  2,  never  satisfy 


FLAME  PROOF  CO. 

NEW    YORK 


No.  i 

some  ladies  who  were  magazine  readers.  None 
of  them  had  ever  taken  the  pains  to  figure  it  out. 
One  of  them  thought  that  it  was  an  advertisement 
of  Bibles.  When  my  attention  was  called  to  it, 

143 


THE     THEORY    OF    ADVERTISING 

I  saw  the  resemblance  between  the  cut  as  a  whole 
and  the  cover  of  an  ordinary  Bible.  The  white 
space  is  evidently  intended  to  look  like  the  bottom 
of  an  iron  and  the  border  containing  the  words 
"F.  P.  C.  Wax"  is  intended  for  a  cut  of  a  stick 
of  the  wax.  None  of  the  ladies  had  interpreted 
the  cut  in  that  way,  but  when  their  attention 
was  called  to  it,  they  agreed  with  me  that  that 
was  probably  what  the  "artist"  had  intended. 
We  were  unable  to  interpret  the  white  dots  and 
the  heavy  black  border.  To  those  familiar  with 
the  advertisement  the  sensation  aroused  by  the 
cut  is  sufficient  to  produce  the  desired  perception. 
For  all  others  the  sensation  is  not  sufficient  to 
call  up  the  necessary  elements  to  complete  the 
perception  and  it  has  no  more  meaning  than  a 
Chinese  puzzle.  It  has  nothing  which  it  seems 
to  be  trying  to  tell  to  those  who  turn  over  the 
pages  of  the  magazine,  and  so  does  not  attract 
their  attention.  We  notice  those  illustrations 
which  have  something  to  say  and  say  it  plainly. 
We  disregard  in  general  those  things  which  do 
not  awaken  in  us  a  perception.  The  sensation 
which  does  not  embody  itself  into  a  perception 
is  of  such  little  interest  to  us  that  we  pay  no 
attention  to  it  at  all. 

The  advertiser  desires  to  produce  certain  per- 
ceptions and  ideas  in  the  minds  of  the  possible 
customers.  The  material  means  with  which 
he  may  accomplish  this  end  are  printed  words 

144 


PERCEPTION 


and  illustrations,  which  in  the  first  instance 
awaken  sensations;  these  in  turn  embody  them- 
selves into  perceptions  and  ideas.  These 


F.  P. 


wax 


A  specially  imported  wax,  chemically  treated,  so  that  when  it  is  ortce 
rubbed  over  the  iron,  the  latter  is  cleaned  as  if  my  magic.  It  prevents  all 
odor,  giving  the  work  that  beautiful  silky  polish  sought  for  by  the  laundress, 


*  A  r  ||  TLT  O  Because  each  fine  cut  stick  of  f.  P.  C  Wax  is 
\.\.  M  K  I  •  in  an  automatic  wooden  holder,  which  keeps  it 
from  dripping;  it  never  loses  shape,  and  is  good  until  the  last  par- 
ticle of  wax  is  used.  The  handle  saves  your  fingers  from  burns. 

If  your  (rrocer  tries  to  substitute  the  old  wu  that  spoils  your 
ironing  and  your  temper,  send  10  cents  for  two  sticks  to  the 

FLAME  PROOF  COMPANY,      -       NEW  YORK 


No.  2 

sensations  seem  so  unimportant  that  they  are 
frequently  forgotten  and  the  place  which  they 
are  to  take  in  forming  the  desired  perceptions 
and  ideas  is  disregarded. 

This   second   advertisement   of   F.    P.   C.   wax 
(No.  2)  appeared  several  months  later  than  the 


THE     THEORY     OF    ADVERTISING 

one  given  above,  and  is  inserted  here  to  illustrate 
how  an  advertisement  may  be  improved  in  the 
particular  point  under  discussion.  The  newer 
cut  is  really  an  illustration.  It  helps  perception 
by  giving  a  sensation  which  is  more  decided  and 
more  easily  interpreted.  It  furthermore  attracts 
attention  and  tells  the  story  better  than  could 
be  done  by  any  text. 

The  advertiser  is  so  familiar  with  what  he  has 
to  offer  that  he  cannot  appreciate  the  difficulty 
the  public  has  in  getting  a  clear  and  complete 
perception  by  means  of  his  advertisements  of 
the  goods  advertised.  It  is  almost  impossible 
to  err  on  the  side  of  clearness.  A  sketchy  illus- 
tration may  appear  artistic  to  the  designer,  but 
there  is  danger  that  it  will  be  regarded  as  mean- 
ingless scrawls  by  the  laity,  and  so  it  will  not 
receive  a  second  thought  from  them.  The  text 
and  the  illustration  should,  first  of  all,  be  clear 
and  should  in  every  way  possible  assist  the  mind 
of  the  possible  customer  in  forming  a  correct 
perception  of  the  goods  being  exploited. 


146 


X 

APPERCEPTION 

ANATOMY  is  the  science  which  divides  the 
human  body  into  its  constituent  parts,  and  is  a 

completed  science  when  it  has  all 

e  .    m       of  these  parts  correctly  described 

n  .          and    labeled.      Physiology    is    the 

science  which  describes  and  ex- 
plains the  different  functions  of  the  human  body. 
It  supplements  anatomy  by  showing  the  function 
of  each  of  the  bones,  muscles,  and  organs,  and  by 
showing  their  mutual  relations.  In  anatomy  we 
divide  the  body  into  distinct  divisions,  and  in 
physiology  we  discover  different  functions.  We 
often  try  to  think  of  mind  after  the  analogy  of 
the  body,  and  by  so  doing  are  led  into  confusion. 
The  attempt  has  been  made  to  divide  the  mind 
into  a  definite  number  of  separate  faculties 
(anatomy).  The  function  of  each  faculty  has 
been  described  as  something  quite  different  from 
the  other  faculties,  and  an  attempt  was  made 
to  define  these  faculties  exactly  and  to  describe 
their  functions  completely  (physiology).  The 
attempt  has  failed  and  has  been  abandoned.  The 
mind  is  not  a  bundle  of  faculties.  It  is  not  com- 
posed of  memory,  reason,  association,  etc.,  but 
it  is  a  unit  which  remembers,  reasons,  feels,  etc. 
No  one  function  is  carried  on  to  the  exclusion 


THE    THEORY    OF    ADVERTISING 

of  all  others  at  any  one  time.  During  all  of  its 
conscious  existence  the  mind  feels,  knows,  wills, 
etc.,  but  at  certain  times  it  is  employed  in  reason- 
ing more  than  at  others,  and  at  one  time  it  may 
be  feeling  more  intensely  than  at  others,  but 
no  one  function  ever  totally  occupies  the  field. 
When  the  mind  recognizes  an  event  as  having 
occurred  in  the  past,  it  is  said  to  remember,  but 
feeling,  attention,  and  association  of  ideas  may 
have  entered  into  this  process  of  memory.  No 
one  mental  process  is  a  thing  existing  apart 
and  independent  of  other  processes.  The  ana- 
tomical method  can  never  be  applied  to  the 
mind.  The  functions  of  the  mind  are  not 
independent  activities  of  the  mind,  but  in 
every  function  memory,  perception,  suggestion, 
and  many  other  functions  play  a  more  or  less 
important  part. 

We  have  no  "apperceiving"  faculty  which  is 
to  be  distinguished  from  all  other  faculties,  and 
which  carries  on  an  independent  process.  The 
mind  does  act  in  a  particular  and  well-known 
manner,  which  we  have  called  "apperception." 
The  term  has  been  used  for  two  centuries,  and 
is  applied  to  a  well-known  process,  or  function, 
of  the  mind  which  is  of  great  practical  and  theo- 
retical importance.  It  includes  sensations,  per- 
ceptions, assimilation,  association,  recognition, 
feeling,  will,  attention,  and  other  actions  of  the 
mind,  and  yet  is  a  very  simple  and  well-known 

148 


APPERCEPTION 


process.  It  can  best  be  understood  if  discussed 
and  illustrated  from  its  various  aspects. 

The  first  thing  to  be  said  about  apperception 
is  that  it  is  the  act  of  the  mind  by  which  per- \ 
ceptions   and   ideas   become   clear 

and  distinct-  l  may  look  at  my 

ink  bottle  on   the   middle   of    the 
Attention 

table.     I   see  it  very  clearly  and 

distinctly.  I  can  also  see,  at  the  same  time, 
other  objects  on  the  table,  and  even  some  which 
are  not  on  it  at  all.  As  long  as  I  continue  to 
look  at  the  ink  bottle  the  objects  distant  from 
the  table  are  not  visible.  The  ink  bottle  is  very 
clear  and  the  ones  near  it  are  comparatively  so; 
those  a  few  feet  away  are  very  indistinct  or 
entirely  invisible.  I  am  said  to  apperceive  the 
bottle,  but  to  perceive  the  more  distant  objects. 
Certain  parts  of  the  bottle  are  not  noticed  par- 
ticularly, while  some  of  the  objects  on  the  table 
stand  out  plainly.  It  is  quite  evident  that 
" clearness"  does  not  draw  a  set  line  between 
the  various  objects,  but  there  are  all  grades  of 
clearness,  from  the  most  clear  to  the  most  obscure. 
We  feel  that  the  mental  process  connected  with 
the  ink  bottle  and  that  connected  with  the  other 
objects  are  different  and  yet  there  is  an  uninter- 
rupted gradation  from  one  to  the  other.  When 
considered  from  this  point  of  view  apperception 
is  simply  an  act  of  attention,  for  what  we  attend 
to  becomes  clear  and  distinct  to  us,  while  that 

149 


THE     THEORY    OF    ADVERTISING 

which  is  not  attended  to  remains  indistinct. 
Furthermore,  there  are  all  degrees  of  attention. 
Certain  things  demand  our  greatest  attention, 
while  others  are  entirely  disregarded.  Most 
things,  however,  are  of  the  intermediary  class. 
We  pay  a  certain  amount  of  attention  to  them, 
but  they  might  easily  receive  more  or  less.  Some 
things  catch  our  attention  so  slightly  (are  so 
slightly  apperceived)  that  we  are  not  aware 
that  we  have  noticed  them  at  all.  I  did  not 
know  that  I  had  ever  noticed  the  walls  of  the 
barber  shop  which  I  patronize,  but  as  soon  as 
I  entered  it  recently  I  knew  that  changes  had 
been  made,  and  I  missed  certain  details  which 
I  had  frequently  seen,  but  to  which  I  had  paid 
so  little  heed  that  they  were  merely  perceived 
and  could  not  be  said  to  have  been  apper- 
ceived at  all. 

The  second  thing  to  remark  about  appercep- 
tion is  that  it  is  more  than  mere  attention.     It 

is  attention  of  a  particular  kind. 
Apperception     Qur    attention    to    an    object  or 


and  Past  P 

event   is   an   act   of   apperception 
Experiences 

if  the  attention  is  brought  about 

by  means  of  the  relationship  of  this  object  or 
event  to  our  previous  experience.  Apperception 
has  been  defined  as  the  bringing  to  bear  what  has 
been  retained  of  past  experience  in  such  a  way  as  to 
interpret,  to  give  weight  to  the  new  experience.  This 
aspect  of  apperception  has  been  most  clearly 

150 


APPERCEPTION 


brought  out  in  the  following  quotation  from 
Dexter  and  Garlack: 

"A  child  who  has  not  learned  any  physiology, 
and  who  has  not  previously  looked  through  a 
microscope,  looks  at  a  drop  of  blood  under  the 
microscope.  He  probably  says  that  he  sees  noth- 
ing. 

"  Another  child  who  has,  we  will  suppose, 
studied  botanical  sections  under  the  miscroscope, 
looks  at  the  same  drop  of  blood  and  says  that 
he  sees  some  small  round  bodies. 

"A  third  child  who  has  learned  a  little  physi- 
ology, looks  through  the  microscope,  recognizes 
the  small  round  bodies  as  corpuscles,  notes  that 
the  majority  are  reddish,  looks  for  and  perhaps 
finds  a  white  corpuscle,  and  so  comes  to  the  con- 
clusion that  it  is  a  drop  of  blood  that  he  sees. 

"In  the  three  instances  everything  is  the 
same  except  the  children.  The  differences  in  the 
results  of  the  acts  of  observation  must  be  due 
to  the  differences  in  the  minds  of  the  children. 
The  reason  that  the  third  child  saw  more  than 
the  other  two  was  that  he  was  fitted  by  pre- 
vious training  to  see  more.  In  order  that  we  may 
see  a  thing  properly  it  is  not  sufficient  that  rays 
of  light  should  come  from  the  object  to  the  eye 
and  nerve  vibrations  travel  along  the  optic 
nerve  to  the  brain.  The  mind  must  be  in  a  posi- 
tion to  interpret,  to  understand  these  vibrations. 
To  sensations  coming  from  without  the  mind 


THE    THEORY    OF    ADVERTISING 

adds  imagination  (i.  e.,  image -making)  working 
from  within.  This  combination  of  action  of 
object  on  mind  and  the  reaction  of  mind  on 
object  is  known  as  apperception." 

The  third  thing  to  notice  about  the  process  of 
apperception  is  that  it  increases  our  knowledge 

by    gradually  adding     new     ele- 

Gradual  .                         r 

ments    to    our  previous    store     of 

Growth  of  ,      . 

Knowledge      exPenence-     In    the    use    of    the 
microscope,  as   cited   above,    each 

child  added  to  its  store  of  knowledge  in  propor- 
tion to  the  amount  of  previous  training  which 
could  be  brought  to.  bear  at  this  point.  The 
first  child  had  had  no  previous  training  in  this  or 
in  any  related  work,  and  so  was  unable  to  profit 
by  this  experience.  He  did  not  focus  his  eye 
correctly,  and  could  not  direct  his  attention  to 
what  the  third  child  saw.  An  object,  event,  or 
situation  which  has  no  relation  to  our  previous 
experience  fails  to  attract  our  attention,  —  is 
not  apperceived,  —  makes  no  impression  on  us, 
and  adds  nothing  to  our  store  of  knowledge. 
Nothing  is  regarded  worthy  of  our  consideration 
which  does  not  relate  itself  to  our  previous 
experience.  In  fact,  we  can  imagine  nothing 
which  is  out  of  relation  to  all  our  previous  ex- 
periences. Things  and  events  are  only  signifi- 
cant in  so  far  as  they  signify  relationships  which 
we  know.  The  slight  difference  between  the  letters 
"O"  and  "Q"  is  immediately  noticed  by  us,  but 

152 


APPERCEPTION 


would  not  be  seen  by  any  one  unfamiliar  with 
our  alphabet.  There  are  many  important  char- 
acteristics about  the  Chinese  alphabet  which 
we  never  observe,  because  they  mean  nothing 
to  us.  They  are  unimportant  for  us  because 
they  do  not  unite  themselves  with  our  previous 
stock  of  ideas.  We  interpret  all  things  by  our1 
own  standards  (our  stock  of  ideas)  —  we  observe) 
only  those  things  which  have  significance  for  us, 
we  increase  our  store  of  ideas  not  by  adding  new 
and  independent  ones,  but  by  uniting  the  old 
with  the  new.  We  are  not  capable  of  forming 
entirely  new  ideas,  but  must  content  ourselves 
with  adding  new  elements  to  our  stock  in  trade. 
All  our  so-called  new  ideas  are  composed  very 
largely  of  old  elements. 

The  practical  importance  of  this  subject  for 
the  advertiser  is  found  in  the  three  aspects  of 
the  process  as  discussed  above.  In  the  first 
place,  some  advertisements  never  stand  out 
clearly  and  distinctly  in  the  minds  of  the  possible 
customers.  We  may  turn  over  the  pages  of  a 

magazine    and    see    every    adver- 
Concentration     tisement    ther6|    but    our    seeing 


may  be  of  the  sort  of  those  of  whom  it  was  said, 
''having  eyes  they  see  not."  I  frequently  turn 
over  the  pages  of  publications  and  direct  my 
eyes  toward  advertisements  and  hold  them  there 
long  enough  to  have  noticed  all  the  striking 
characteristics  of  them,  and  yet  in  ten  minutes 

153 


THE     THEORY    OF    ADVERTISING 

afterward  I  do  not  know  that  these  particular 
advertisements  are  in  the  publication  at  all. 
I  had  perceived  them,  but  had  not  apperceived 
them.  The  designers  of  these  advertisements 
had  not  been  successful  in  concentrating  my 
mind  on  any  particular  thing  which  had  a  special 
reference  to  my  previous  experience,  and  which 
would  therefore  be  apperceived  by  me. 

We  cannot  apperceive  a  large  number  of  things 
at  the  same  time.  An  advertisement  which 
is  constructed  upon  the  principle  that  all  parts 
of  it  should  be  attractive  at  the  same  time  will 
so  divide  the  attention  that  no  part  of  it  will 
stand  out  prominently,  and  so  it  will  not  be 
noticed  at  all.  A  superfluity  of  details  should 
be  strenuously  guarded  against  in  both  the  text 
and  the  illustration.  If  a  single  point  of  an 
advertisement  is  apperceived  it  serves  as  an 
opening  wedge  for  the  entire  advertisement.  If, 
however,  there  are  too  many  details  the  atten- 
tion may  be  so  distracted  that  none  of  it  will  be 
apperceived,  although  it  may  all  be  seen  (per- 
ceived). The  things  which  we  perceive  do  make 
a  slight  impression  on  us,  but  they  are  so  unim- 
portant in  comparison  with  the  things  that  we 
apperceive  that  we  may  almost  disregard  them 
entirely. 

The  second  point  for  the  advertiser  to  con- 
sider is  that  the  apperception  value  (identical 
with  attention  value  in  this  case)  of  the  adver- 


APPERCEPTION 


tisement  does  not  depend  so  much  on  what 
the  reader  receives  from  the  advertisement,  but 

what  he  adds  to  it.  Your  adver- 
Know  Your  tisement  and  all  other  printed  mat- 
Public  ter  is  composed  of  a  few  straight 

lines  and  a  few  curved  ones,  of 
a  few  dots,  and  perhaps  one  or  more  colored  sur- 
faces. These,  when  seen,  cause  a  sensation  of 
sight,  but  that  is  the  smallest  part  of  the  result 
of  your  advertisement.  These  visual  sensations 
are  immediately  enforced  by  the  previous  expe- 
rience of  the  reader.  The  value  of  your  adver- 
tisement depends  almost  entirely  on  the  number 
and  kind  of  former  experiences  which  it  awakens. 
The  advertisement  is  not  a  thing  which  contains 
within  itself  the  reason  for  its  existence.  In 
and  of  itself  it  is  perfectly  worthless.  The  aim 
of  the  advertisement  is  to  call  forth  activity  in  the 
minds  of  its  readers  —  and,  it  might  be  added, 
action  of  a  particular  sort.  The  advertisement 
which  is  beautiful  and  pleasing  to  its  designer, 
and  which  begets  activity  in  his  mind,  may  be 
perfectly  worthless  as  an  advertisement.  The 
drop  of  blood  in  the  miscroscope  brought  forth 
no  activity  on  the  part  of  the  first  child  who  looked 
at  it,  as  cited  above.  The  child  had  nothing  in 
its  former  experience  which  was  suggested  by 
the  appearance  of  the  drop  of  blood,  and  so  it 
was  not  interpreted  and  was  not  connected  with 
the  child's  former  life,  and  so  made  no  impression 

155 


THE    THEORY    OF    ADVERTISING 

on  him.     That  which  happened  to  the  children 
in  looking  through  the  microscope  happens  every 


No.  i 

day  to  the  readers  of  advertisements.  The  same 
advertisement  will  call  forth  different  amounts 
of  activity  from  different  readers.  Some  adver- 
tisements have  a  meaning  to  those  who  are  well 

TS6 


APPERCEPTION 


acquainted  with  them,  and  to  such  they  tell 
their  story  accurately  and  quickly.  To  some 
readers  they  tell  a  confused  or  erroneous  story; 
to  others  they  have  nothing  to  tell  at  all.  As 
an  example  of  such  advertisements  we  have 
reproduced  the  advertisement  (No.  i)  of  Whit- 
man's chocolates. 

This  looks  like  a  very  neat  advertisement, 
but  it  fails  at  the  two  crucial  points  —  it  neither 
attracts  attention  nor  assists  in  forming  a  cor- 
rect perception  of  the  goods  advertised.  As  a 
proof  of  this  statement  it  is  but  necessary  to 
refer  to  the  result  obtained  with  this  advertise- 
ment in  a  series  of  tests  recently  made.  The 
magazine  containing  this  advertisement  was 
shown  to  516  young  people  between  the  ages  of 
ten  and  twenty-five.  After  they  had  looked  at 
all  the  advertisements  they  were  asked  to  write 
down  all  the  advertisements  which  they  had 
noticed  and  could  remember.  One  girl  remem- 
bered that  she  had  seen  an  advertisement  of 
candy,  but  could  not  remember  whose  it  was  or 
what  the  advertisement  was.  One  boy  remem- 
bered that  " Whitman's  candy"  was  advertised, 
but  thought  the  advertisement  had  the  picture 
of  a  lady  eating  a  piece  of  candy.  The  first  of 
the  two  probably  referred  to  Huyler's  adver- 
tisement (Huyler  advertised  in  the  same  issue) 
and  the  second  certainly  confused  the  two  ad- 
vertisements. Besides  these  two  none  of  the 


THE    THEORY     OF    ADVERTISING 

516    persons    noticed    the    advertisement    suffi- 
ciently to    remember  that    it    was  there  at    all. 


A 

Token 
of 

Remembrance 
Always  in  Good 
Taste. 


For  sale  everywhere. 

WHITMAN'S 

Instantaneous  Chocolate 

Made  in  a  minute  with  boiling  milk. 


STEPHEN  F.  WHITMAN  &  SON, 
1316  Chestnut  Street,  Philadelphia. 

Established  1842. 


No.  2 

This  second  advertisement  (No.  2)  of  Whitman's 
appeared  in  a  later  issue  of  the  same  magazine. 
I  have  made  no  tests  of  this  advertisement,  but 
feel  sure  that  if  the  516  had  seen  this  instead 

158 


APPERCEPTION 


of  the  other  advertisement  a  very  large  per 
cent,  of  them  would  have  noticed  it  and  have 
remembered  it.  It  attracts  attention  and  tells 
more  at  a  glance  than  could  be  told  in  many 
well-formed  sentences.  It  would  create  a  de- 
sire on  the  part  of  many  of  these  young  people 
to  send  for  or  to  purchase  a  box  of  such  desir- 
able looking  candy.  It  is  an  illustration  which 
illustrates  by  helping  perception,  and  it  also 
attracts  attention  because  it  has  something  to 
tell. 

The  third  thing  for  the  advertiser  to  observe 
in  connection  with  apperception  is  that  advance- 
ment   in   knowledge    is   jnade   by 

**      joining   the    new    on    to    the   old. 
a.  New 

Commodity      The  Pedag°gical  maxim  of  advanc- 
ing   from    the    known  to  the  un- 
known finds  its  justification  here. 

It  is  very  difficult  to  get  the  public  to  think 
along  a  new  line,  because  they  cannot  connect 
the  new  fact  with  their  previous  experience, 
i.  e.,  they  cannot  apperceive  it.  This  makes  it 
very  difficult  to  introduce  a  new  article  on  the 
market.  Old  firms  find  it  difficult  to  introduce 
a  new  brand,  and  new  firms  find  it  difficult  to 
get  themselves  noticed  at  all.  Frequently  firms 
have  resorted  to  questionable  means  to  get  the 
public  even  to  notice  them.  It  seems  to  be 
impossible  for  them  to  get  a  hearing  for  the  de- 
tails of  their  propositions  until  they  have  let  the 


THE    THEORY    OF    ADVERTISING 

public  become  familiar  with  their  names  and 
know  who  they  are.  The  promoters  of  Omega 
Oil  have  been  severely  criticised  for  their  goose, 
but  the  goose  has  introduced  them  to  the  public, 
and  now  they  are  in  a  position  to  get  a  hearing 
and  to  present  the  arguments  for  their  commodity. 
It  is  quite  possible  that  the  expense  of  keeping 
the  goose  before  the  public  was  an  unnecessary 
luxury,  but  they  have  been  wise  in  not  advanc- 
ing their  argument  faster  than  the  public  was 
willing  to  hear  it.  They  have  taken  but  one  step 
at  a  time.  They  first  let  the  public  know  that 
there  was  such  a  thing  as  Omega  Oil,  and  they 
took  great  pains  to  make  this  new  fact  known, 
and  in  doing  this  they  were  acting  in  accordance 
with  the  principles  of  apperception.  They  first 
gave  the  public  some  experience  of  Omega  Oil, 
and  then  tried  to  get  the  public  to  interpret  their 
arguments  in  the  light  of  that  previous  experience. 
It  is  not  always  necessary  or  even  wise  to 
attempt  to  present  all  the  arguments  for  a  com- 
modity at  a  single  time.  It  is  frequently  wise 
to  carry  on  an  educational  campaign  and  to  pre- 
sent single  arguments.  In  this  way  the  mind 
of  the  possible  customer  is  not  crowded  with  a 
lot  of  new  and  disconnected  facts,  but  each 
argument  has  time  to  be  assimilated  and  to 
form  a  part  of  his  experience,  and  is  called  up 
to  strengthen  and  impress  each  succeeding 
argument. 

160 


APPERCEPTION 


In  writing  an  advertisement  the  public  to  be 
reached  must  be  carefully  studied.  In  exploit- 
ing a  new  commodity  the  writer  should  ask 
himself  what  there  is  about  his  goods  which 
will  fall  into  " prepared  soil"  on  the  part  of  the 
reader.  The  reader  must  first  be  appealed  to 
by  something  which  he  already  knows,  and  thus 
activity  on  his  part  is  awakened,  and  this  ac- 
tivity may  be  made  use  of  for  presenting  the 
new  elements,  which,  if  presented  at  first,  would 
have  met  with  no  response  whatever.  Nothing 
should  be  presented  as  something  ,  absolutely 
new,  but  as  an  improvement  or  substitute  for 
something  which  is  well  known.  The  reader's 
interest  can  be  best  awakened  by  appealing  to 
his  past  experiences. 


161 


XI 
ILLUSIONS   OF    PERCEPTION 

IF  there  is  anything  in  the  world  that  we  feel 

sure  of,   it  is  that  our  senses   (eyes,   ears,   etc.) 

do  not  deceive  us,  but  that  they 

present   the   outside   world   to   us 

Believing  Just  as  {t  is*  Some  have  been 
so  impressed  with  the  truthful- 
ness of  their  senses  that  they  have  discredited 
all  other  sources  of  knowledge  and  are  unwill- 
ing to  accept  anything  as  true  which  they  can- 
not see.  "Seeing  is  believing,"  and  nothing  is 
so  convincing  as  our  perceptions. 

Many  centuries  ago  it  was  discovered  that 
und<M*  .certain  conditions  even  our  senses  de- 
ceived us.  This  discovery  was  emphasized  and 
the  certainty  of  any  and  all  our  knowledge  was 
questioned  till  the  extremest  sort  of  skepticism 
prevailed.  Such  a  condition  was  abnormal  and 
transient,  but  it  certainly  is  a  great  shock  to  us 
when  we  discover  that  under  certain  conditions 
our  senses  are  not  to  be  depended  upon. 

All  the  sense  organs  are  the  product  of  a  long 
evolution  in  which  the  various  organs  were 
developed  as  instruments  of  communication  by 
means  of  which  we  might  adjust  ourselves  to  our 
environments.  Of  all  the  sense  organs  the  eye 
is  the  most  highly  developed,  and  yet  it  was  not 

162 


ILLUSIONS    OF    PERCEPTION 

one  of  the  first  to  be  developed.  It  is  marvel- 
ously  well  adjusted  for  the  functions  which  it 
has  to  perform,  but  it  has  certain  weaknesses  and 
defects  which  are  surprising. 

Although  each  of  the  sense  organs  is  a  source 
of  illusion,  this  chapter  will  be  confined  to  a  pres- 
entation of  some  of  the  most  striking  illusions  of 
the  eye. 

One  of  the  most  glaring  of  the  so-called  "  optical 
illusions"  is  the  illusion  as  to  the  length  of  lines. 

We  iudge  distances  by  the  amount 

r     J  i  •  i     • 

of  eye  movement  which  is  neces- 

sary  to  look  from  one  extremity 
of  the  line  to  the  other.  Under 
some  circumstances  this  eye  movement  is  fa- 
cilitated and  under  others  it  is  retarded.  Lines 


Illusion 
...        ,, 


No.  i 

or  distances  over  which  the  eye  moves  readily 
are  underestimated,  while  those  over  which  the 
eye  moves  with  difficulty  are  overestimated. 

No.  i  shows  two  lines  of  equal  length.  The 
line  at  the  top  seems  much  shorter  and  the 
explanation  is  as  given  above.  The  arrowheads 

163 


THE    THEORY    OF    ADVERTISING 

which  are  turned  in  stop  the  eye  movement 
before  the  end  of  the  line  is  reached.  The  arrow- 
heads which  are  turned  out  invite  the  eye  to  go 
even  further  than  the  end  of  the  line.  I  have 
conducted  experiments  with  very  finely  con- 
structed instruments  which  showed  that  as  I 
looked  at  the  bottom  line  my  eye  moved  further 
than  it  did  when  I  looked  at  the  upper  line. 

When  out  walking,   we  are  inclined  to  judge 
the  distance  traversed  by  the  amount  of  effort 

we    have    put    forth    in    covering 
Filled  Space      the   distance      Any   one   who   has 

Overestimated   ,     ,  .  ,,  .,        -, 

had  occasion  to  walk  on  railroad 

ties  knows  that  the  distance  which  he  thought  he 
had  covered  was  much  greater  than  the  distance 
which  he  had  actually  covered.  In  walking  on 
the  railroad  ties,  every  tie  must  be  noticed 
and  its  distance  from  the  next  tie  must  be 
roughly  estimated.  There  is  a  constant  start- 
ing and  stopping  which  calls  for  the  putting 
forth  of  an  excessive  amount  of  energy.  When 
we  walk  over  a  smooth  and  well-known  path  there 
is  no  starting  and  stopping  at  all,  but  movement 
is  continuous  and  easy.  In  the  case  of  these 
walks  the  distance  covered  is  judged  according 
to  the  amount  of  energy  which  the  limbs  must 
put  forth  to  cover  the  distance.  A  similiar  illu- 
sion occurs  when  the  eye  is  called  upon  to  judge 
of  distances  which,  roughly  speaking,  correspond 
to  the  railroad  ties  and  the  smooth  path. 

164 


ILLUSIONS    OF     PERCEPTION 

In  No.  2  the  extents  indicated  by  A  and  B 
are  equal.  A  is  an  open  space  bounded  by  two 
dots,  and  the  eye  moves  over  it  readily  and  with- 
out any  delays.  B  is  a  space  bounded  by  two 
dots  broken  by  three  others,  and,  although  the 
eye  seems  to  run  over  them  smoothly,  there 
is  a  slight  tendency  to  notice  each  dot,  and  this 

A  B 


^-x 
c 

III! 

D 

1  1  1  1  1  1  1  1 

1  1  1  1  1  1  1  1 

) 

E, 
H  II  1  Illill  III 

F 

G 

inn  iiiinii  1  1 

No.  2 

stopping  and  starting  at  each  dot  requires  more 
energy  than  it  does  to  move  the  eye  over  an 
empty  space  of  the  same  size.  As  seen  extents 
are  estimated  according  to  the  amount  of  energy 
necessary  to  move  the  eye  over  them,  B  is  judged 
to  be  greater  than  A.  The  other  illusions  shown 
in  No.  2  are  explained  in  the  same  way- — C  ap- 
pears much  shorter  than  D,  and  F  appears  much 
shorter  than  E  or  G. 

In  No.  3  the  two  squares  are  of  equal  size,  but 
the  left-hand  one  appears  to  be  much  the  larger. 
As  the  eye  passes  over  the  upper  square  there  is 
a  tendency  to  stop  at  each  cross  line,  and  these 
stoppings  and  startings  cause  us  to  overestimate 
the  size  of  the  square. 

165 


THE      THEORY    OF    ADVERTISING 

Nos.  2  and  3  are  but  a  few  of  the  examples 
which  might  be  given  to  show  that  filled  space 
is  overestimated  and  that  empty  space  is  under- 


No.  3 

estimated.  In  every,  case  the  cause  of  the 
illusion  is  found  in  the  fact  that  we  base  our 
estimation  of  extents  upon  the  eye  movements 
which  are  necessary  to  look  over  the  field  or 
extent  being  estimated. 

All   eye   movements   are   made   by   means   of 
the    three  pairs  of   muscles  which    are    attached 
to    each    eye.     They    are    so    ad- 
Vertical       just^    that    they    can    move    the 


direction'    but    the 
pairs  of   muscles  are  not  symmet- 

rically placed,  and  as  a  natural  consequence  it 
is  harder  to  move  the  eyes  in  certain  directions 
than  in  others.  If  you  move  your  eyes  from 
right  to  left  and  from  left  to  right,  you  will  observe 
that  it  is  much  easier  than  it  is  to  move  them 
up  and  down.  Our  conclusion  from  this  would 
be  that  if  we  judge  distances  by  eye  movement, 
we  would  overestimate  vertical  distances  and 

1  66 


ILLUSIONS    OF    PERCEPTION 

underestimate  horizontal  distances.     Such  is  the 
case. 

In    No.    4    the    horizontal    and    vertical    lines 
are  equal,  but  to  most  persons  the  vertical  line 


No.  4 

appears  longer.  A  square  does  not  look  to  be 
square,  but  looks  as  if  its  vertical  sides  were 
greater  than  its  horizontal  ones. 

No.    5    combines    several    different    causes    of 
illusions,  and  the  result  is  very  striking.     Meas- 
urements made   along  the  dotted 
Combination    v  ,  ,      ,      .  1   v 

lines  show  the  horizontal  line  to 

be  about  one-sixth  longer  than 
Illusions 

the  vertical  line.  The  /explana- 
tion of  this  illusion  is  more  difficult  to  find  than 
that  of  the  figures  above  given,  but  it  is  quite 


THE    THEORY    OF    ADVERTISING 

certain  that  all  the  explanations  given  above 
apply  here,  and  in  addition  we  must  mention 
the  "  error  of  expectancy. "  We  expect  to  see  the 


No.  5 

horizontal  arms  of  a  cross  shorter  than  the  height 
of  it,  and  so  we  are  inclined  to  see  it  that  way 
even  when  the  reverse  is  true.  The  error  of 
expectancy  will  be  more  fully  discussed  in  the 
next  chapter. 

In  certain  positions  straight  lines  look  crooked 
and  crooked  ones  look  straight. 

No.  6  shows  straight  lines  which  seem  to  be 
decidedly  warped.  The  four  horizontal  lines 
are  two  pairs  of  straight  and  parallel  lines. 
The  explanation  of  this  illusion  is  that  we  un- 

168 


ILLUSIONS 


EPTION 


derestimate   the   size  of  large   angles   and   over- 
estimate the  size  of  small  ones.     Each  horizontal 
line    is    crossed   by   a  number   of 

oblique  lines  and  each  oblique  line 
Appear 

Crooked         lorrns   two   acute  and  two  obtuse 

angles  with  each   horizontal   line. 

As  we  overestimate  the  size  of  the  acute  angles 

and   underestimate    the   size  of    the   large   ones, 


No.  6 

the  straight  lines  must  appear  crooked  to  allow 
for  these  mis  judgments. 

In  certain  positions  figures  which  are  the  same 
size  may  appear  to  be  very  far  from  being  equal. 

No.  7  shows  two  identical  figures,  but  the 
lower  one  appears  to  be  much  smaller  than  the 
upper  one.  The  explanation  of 

thiS  illusion  is  somewhat  different 
from  the  explanation  of  the  other 
illusions  as  given   above.     In  comparing  the  size 

169 


THE     THEORY    OF    ADVERTISING 

of  two  objects  we  ordinarily  judge  by  the  com- 
parative size  of  adjoining  areas.      In  the  figures 


No.  7 

shown  the  targe  side  of  one  is  next  to  the  small 
side  of  the  other.  We  involuntarily  compare 
these  adjoining  sides,  and  so  the  illusion  occurs. 

There   is   another  class   of   illusions   which   do 
not  depend  upon  eye  movement,  but  upon  the 
way    the    different    rays    of    light 


-  "see"  objects    when    the    rays    of 

light  reflected  from  them  fall  upon 
the  retina  of  the  eye.  From  large  objects 
more  light  is  reflected  than  from  small  objects. 
Because  of  this  we  have  come  to  judge  objects 
not  only  from  the  eye  movement,  but  also  from 
the  size  of  the  object  as  it  is  reflected  upon  the 
eye.  The  rays  of  light  reflected  from  some 
colors  spread  themselves  out,  or  " irradiate," 
and  so  the  image  of  the  object  as  it  is  reflected 

170 


ILLUSIONS     OF    PERCEPTION 


in  the  eye  is  greater  than  the  image  of  an  object 
of  the  same  size  but  of  a  color  which  does  not 
irradiate.  For  this  reason  white  objects  appear 
larger  than  black  ones.  The  stock  buyers  of  the 
West  are  often  compelled  to  guess  at  the  weight 
of  animals.  I  am  told  that  they  always  reduce 
their  "guess"  on  white  animals  and  add  to  the 


No.  8 

apparent  size  of  black  ones.  A  white  square 
looks  larger  than  a  black  one.  In  No.  8  the  white 
square  to  the  right  appears  larger  than  the  black 
square  to  the  left,  although  they  are  of  equal 
size.  Nor  is  this  illusion  confined  to  white  and 
black.  Red,  orange,  and  yellow  objects  look 
larger  than  objects  of  the  same  size  which  are 
green  and  blue.  Corpulent  people  dress  them- 
selves in  black  or  in  the  darker  shades  of  blue 
or  green.  Small,  thin  people  dress  in  white,  red, 
orange,  or  yellow. 

Another  source  of  errors  is  found  in  the   fact 
which,  technically  expressed,  is  that  the  eye  is 

171 


THE    THEORY    OF    ADVERTISING 

not  corrected  for  chromatic  aberration.  The 
result  of  this  defect  in  the  eye  is  that  certain 
colors  look  closer  than  others.  Thus  red  objects 
look  closer  than  green  ones.  I  remember  look- 
ing at  a  church  window  which  had  a  red  disk 
in  a  green  background.  The  red  appeared  to 
stand  out  from  the  green  in  such  a  remarkable 
manner  that  I  was  not  satisfied  till,  after  the 
service  was  over,  I  went  to  the  window  and  felt 
of  it.  The  red  and  the  green  were  in  the  same 
plane,  but,  as  the  red  might  have  stood  out,  the 
illusion  was  not  counteracted  by  my  knowledge 
of  the  prospective  and  was  very  striking. 

Tailors  and  dressmakers  have  taken  advan- 
tage of  some  of  the  sources  of  illusions  as  given 
above.  They  know  how  to  cover  defects  and 
to  produce  the  desired  appearances.  Corpulent 
ladies  are  not  found  wearing  checks,  nor  are 
tall  ladies  in  the  habit  of  wearing  vertical  stripes. 
As  far  as  the  writer  knows,  advertisers  have  never 
made  a  conscious  effort  to  profit  by  illusions  in 
their  illustrations  and  construction  of  display. 
It  is  not  the  function  of  this  article  to  suggest 
how  the  principles  here  enunciated  might  be 
applied  to  any  particular  concrete  case,  but 
the  ingenious  advertiser  will  find  the  applica- 
tion. The  Purina  Mills  put  up  their  goods  in 
checkerboard  packages,  which  make  the  packages 
look  larger  than  they  really  are.  This  illusion  is 
illustrated  in  No.  3.  Ordinarily  the  illustration 

172 


ILLUSIONS    OF     PERCEPTION 

in  advertisements  of  fountain  pens  represents 
the  pen  in  a  horizontal  position.  I  have  re- 
cently noticed  some  of  the  illustrations  in  which 
the  pen  is  represented  in  a  vertical  position. 
This  makes  the  pen  look  larger,  as  is  indicated 
in  No.  4. 

If   the    designer   of   an    advertisement   desires 
to  give  the  impression  of  bigness  to  an  article 

which  he  is  presenting,   he  might 
Appearai          make   use   Q£   gome   Qr   all   Q£   the 

u  B>  „      illusions    given    above.     The    cut 

of  the  article  might  be  so  con- 
structed that  the  eye  would  move  completely 
over  it  or  even  beyond  it,  as  is  shown  in  the 
lower  figure  of  No.  i.  It  might  be  of  such  a 
nature  that  the  eye  would  not  move  over  it 
readily,  as  is  the  case  with  B,  D,  E,  and  G  in 
No.  2.  It  might  be  checkered  like  the  left-hand 
square  of  No.  3.  It  might  have  its  dimensions 
indicated  by  vertical  and  not  by  horizontal  lines. 
It  might  take  advantage  of  the  error  of  expec- 
tation, as  is  shown  in  No.  5.  Its  size  might 
be  made  to  appear  greater  by  the  introduction 
of  acute  angles,  as  is  shown  in  No.  6,  in  which 
the  distance  between  the  two  parallel  lines  is 
increased  and  decreased  by  acute  and  obtuse 
angles.  The  cut  might  be  brought  into  contrast 
with  some  other  figure  which  would  give  the 
impression  of  great  size,  as  is  done  in  the  upper 
figure  of  No.  7.  Finally,  the  part  of  the  cut 


THE    THEORY    OF     ADVERTISING 

which  is  to  look  large  might  be  colored  red, 
orange,  yellow,  or  white.  If  several  of  these 
principles  of  illusions  could  be  employed  in  a 
single  cut  the  effect  would  be  astonishing. 

As  will  be  seen,  the  cause  of  all  illusions  of  per- 
ception is  found  in  some  maladjustment  of  our 
normal  sense  organs.  The  advertiser  is  perfectly 
justified  in  taking  advantage  of  this  defect  of 
ours,  and  in  some  cases  this  could  be  done  to 
advantage. 


174 


XII 

ILLUSIONS  OF  APPERCEPTION 

IN  Evanston,  Illinois,  two  grocery  firms  are  ac- 
customed to  advertise  on  hand-bills    which  are 

placed  in  the  morning  papers  before 
Confusions       ,,  ,  v         ,  , 

they  are  delivered  by  the  carriers. 

Advertisements  A  friend  of  mine'  who  was  the  head 
of  a  family,  had  frequently  noticed 

these  bills  in  his  morning  paper  and,  having 
noticed  at  some  time  the  name  of  ' '  Robinson 
Brothers  "  on  one  of  the  advertisements,  had 
come  to  the  conclusion  that  all  these  hand -bills 
were  from  Robinson  Brothers.  On  a  certain 
morning  Winter's  Grocery  offered  to  sell  several 
lines  of  standard  goods  at  a  very  great  reduction 
from  the  ordinary  price.  As  my  friend  was  going 
down  town  that  morning  his  wife  handed  him  the 
hand-bill  and  asked  him  to  order  quite  an  exten- 
sive quantity  of  the  special  bargains  offered  that 
morning.  He  took  the  advertisement,  checked  off 
what  his  wife  wanted,  and  went  down  town. 
As  he  entered  Robinson  Brothers'  store  he  held 
Winter's  advertisement  in  his  hand  and  read  off 
to  the  clerk  the  order  which  he  was  commis- 
sioned to  make.  When  the  goods  were  delivered 
he  was  taken  to  task  by  his  wife  for  ordering  the 
goods  at  the  wrong  store  and  thereby  failing  to 
save  the  special  reductions  for  that  day.  It  so 


THE     THEORY    OF    ADVERTISING 

happened  that  the  advertisement  was  still  in  his 
pocket.      As  he  took  it    out   and  looked  at   it 


ELASTIC  RIBBED 

Union  Suits 


Sold  Bv  Best  Dtaltrs  Ever}' 


No.  i 

again  he  was  very  much  surprised  to  see  "  Win- 
ter's Grocery  "  in  plain  type  at  the  bottom.  It 
was  not  comforting  to  him  either  to  remember 
the  way  the  clerk  had  smiled  when  he  had  held 

176 


ILLUSIONS    OF    APPERCEPTLON 

the  advertisement  in  his  hand  and  ordered 
the  goods.  He  even  believed  he  remembered 
that  the  cashier  stopped  work  and  scanned  him 
and  the  advertisement  while  the  order  was  being 
given. 

In  the  reduced  reproduction  (No.  i)  of  a  full- 
page  advertisement,  which  appeared  in  Every- 
body's Magazine,  the  Oneita  goods  occupied  three- 
fourths  of  the  page  and  the  Munsing  goods 
one-fourth.  It  seems  that  there  should  be  no 
confusion  about  this,  but  such  has  not  been  the 
case.  The  Munsing  people  received  a  number  of 
letters  of  inquiry  concerning  the  Oneita  union 
suits.  For  persons  desiring  union  suits  this  full- 
page  advertisement  was  all  supposed  to  be  an 
advertisement  issuing  from  the  manufacturers  of 
the  Munsing  underwear.  An  advertising  manager 
of  a  progressive  magazine  saw  this  page  and,  like 
many  other  readers,  supposed  that  it  was  all  one. 
He  wrote  to  the  Munsing  people,  making  them 
rates  on  the  full-page  advertisement,  and  enclosed 
the  page  from  which  the  half-tone  was  made  as 
shown  above. 

Confusions  often  arise  between  advertisements 
which  present  the  most  dissimilar  kinds  of  goods. 
It  might  seem  surprising  that  the  advertisements 
for  portable  houses  should  be  confused  with  the 
advertisement  of  pens ,  but  the  following  illustra- 
tion will  show  how  naturally  such  an  error  could 
occur : 

177 


THE    THEORY    OF    ADVERTISING 

In  the  reduced  reproduction  of  the  full-page  ad- 
vertisement  (No.   2)   the  Conklin  Pen  Company 


Mershon  &  Money 
Portable  Houses 


No.  2 

occupies  the  upper  right-hand  quarter  page  and 
the  lower  left-hand  quarter  page.  The  upper 
right-hand  quarter  is  of  such  a  nature  that  it 
arrests  the  reader's  attention  as  he  turns  over  the 
page.  It  is  of  such  an  indefinite  nature  that  it 

1/8 


ILLUSIONS    OF    APPERCEPTION 

does  not  direct  the  attention  to  anything  in  par- 
ticular, but  merely  arrests  it  and  causes  one  to 
look  down.  It  does  not  draw  attention  to  the 
lower  left-hand  quarter  more  than  it  does  to  the 
lower  right-hand  quarter.  Under  these  circum- 
stances the  lower  quarter  which  appeals  to  the 
reader  the  most  strongly  receives  the  most  atten- 
tion. We  may  for  the  present  assume  that 
the  two  lower  quarters  are  equally  attractive. 
Under  these  circumstances  it  will  depend  upon 
the  reader  himself  as  to  whether  he  will  see  the 
portable  houses  or  the  pens.  If  he  has  been  think- 
ing of  portable  houses  —  if  he  wants  a  portable 
house  —  his  attention  will  immediately  be  at- 
tracted by  the  advertisement  of  Mershon  &  Mor- 
ley,  and  he  will  take  it  for  granted  that  Mershon 
&  Morley  have  used  the  entire  right-hand  half  of 
the  page.  This  conclusion  is  not  merely  hypotheti- 
cal, for  Mershon  &  Money  have  positive  proof  as 
to  very  many  such  confusions  and  they  are  of  the 
opinion  that  they  have  received  as  much  benefit 
from  the  upper  right-hand  quarter  as  the  Conklin 
Pen  Company  has. 

Of  two  hat  firms  of  Chicago  one  puts  great  em- 
phasis on  its  own  name  and  address,  the  other 
emphasizes  the  style  of  the  hat  sold.  For  con- 
venience' sake  we  shall  call  the  first  firm  "  A  "  and 
the  second  "  B."  Hatter  A  has  made  his  name 
so  well  known  that  when  a  possible  customer  sees 
an  advertisement  of  hats  he  at  once  begins  to 

179 


THE     THEORY    OF    ADVERTISING 


think  of  A.  Last  summer  Hatter  B  advertised  a 
particular  style  of  hat  very  extensively.  His 
name  was  on  all  the  advertisements,  of  course. 
The  name,  however,  was  not  the  important  or  the 
emphasized  thing.  After  they  had  read  the  ad- 
vertisement through  many  persons  still  supposed 
that  it  was  A's  advertisement.  Hatter  A  is  not 
willing  to  have  his  name  or  that  of  his  competitor 
mentioned,  for  he  does  nolxiesire  to  see  the  present 
condition  changed.  His  position  can  be  appre- 
ciated when  we  learn  that  he  sold  over  twenty 
dozen  hats  last  summer  to  persons  who  thought 
they  were  getting  the  hat  which  they  had  seen 
advertised  by  B. 

I  have  frequently  observed  that  people  mis- 
read advertisements.  In  some  cases  the  mistakes 
are  astonishing.  After  a  young  lady  had  com- 
pleted "looking  through"  a  magazine,  I  asked 
her  to  write  down  as  full  an  account  as  possible 
of  some  of  the  advertisements  in  the  magazine. 
Here  is  what  she  wrote:  "  What  sensations  are 
more  agreeable  after  exercise  than  a  hard  rub 
with  a  towel  and  a  rub  with  Armour's  toilet  soap, 
and  a  dash  of  water?  Armour's  soap  may  not  be 
very  valuable,  but  it  is  very  refreshing  after  exer- 
cise. Armour's  soap  may  be  bought  at  any  store 
at  five  or  ten  cents  a  bar."  What  she  had  read 
was  the  following:  "  What  sensations  are  more 
agreeable  than  those  following  some  good,  quick 
exercise,  a  rub  with  a  rough  towel,  a  scrub  with 

1 80 


ILLUSIONS    OF    APPERCEPTION 

Ivory  soap  and  a  dash  of  cold  water?  ...  If  the 
Ivory  soap  is  not  positively  essential,  it  is  at  least 
delightfully  cleansing,"  etc.  I  asked  several  hun- 
dred persons  to  write  down -a  description  of  the 
advertisements  which  they  had  just  read.  This 
confusion  of  Armour's  and  Ivory  soap  is  but  one 
of  scores  of  similar  confusions  which  I  discovered. 
At  an  international  congress  of  psychologists 
held  in  Munich,  in  1896,  an  alleged  "  photograph  " 
of  the  human  brain  (No.  3)  was  exhibited. 


No.  3 

All  those  present  were  much  interested  in  the 
structure  and  functions  of  the  brain.     Many  of 

Ambiguous       them'   at  first  si£ht'   saw  nothing 
unusual  about  the  picture,  but  ob- 
served the  position  of  the  various 
convolutions  and  fissures  of  the  brain.     Later  it 
dawned  upon  them  that  it  was  not  a  photograph 
of  the  brain  at  all,  but  was  a  group  of  naked  babies. 
I  have  since  that  time  shown  the  picture  to  vari- 
ous persons  and  have  noticed  that  those  who  are 

181 


THE    THEORY    OF    ADVERTISIN 

familiar  with  the  brain  first  see  a  brain,  but  ot 
persons  are  likely  to  see  the  babies  at  once. 

The  first  time  I  saw  this  photograph  of  a  bx 
I  did  not  notice  the  babies  for  several  secont. 
then  for  some  time  I  could  see  it  as  either  a  br- 
er a  group  of  babies.     Now  I  find  that  I  can. 
see  it  as  a  brain  at  all,  but  every  time  I  look  at 
I  see  the  babies  and  there  is  scarcely  any  reseii 
blance  to  a  brain  there. 

The  following  cut  (No.  4)  differs  from  the  one 
last  discussed  in  this  particular.  I  can  see  it 
equally  well  in  two  different  ways. 


No.  4 

If  I  look  away  from  it  and  think  how  it  should 
be  to  represent  a  duck  and  then  turn  my  eyes 
upon  it,  behold  —  it  is  a  duck.  If  I  think  how  it 
should  be  to  represent  a  rabbit  and  then  look  at 
it,  it  ceases  to  look  like  a  duck  and  is  the  likeness 
of  a  rabbit.  The  figure  itself  may  represent 
equally  well  either  a  rabbit  or  a  duck,  but  cannot 
possibly  suggest  both  to  me  at  the  same  time.  If 
I  continue  to  look  at  it  steadily  for  some  minutes 
it  changes  from  a  rabbit  to  a  duck  and  then  back 

182 


ILLUSIONS    OF     APPERCEPTION 

>  a  rabbit.     When  I  see  it  as  one  it  does  not  seem 
ssible  that  it  could  ever  look  like  the  other ;  for 
.e  two  things  are  so  totally  different  in  appear- 
ance. 

The  following  illustration  (No.  5)  differs  from 
jie  one  given  immediately  above  in  several  im- 


No.  5        r 

portant  particulars.  The  one  given  above  is  seen 
equally  well  in  either  of  two  ways,  and  we  seem  to 
have  no  preference  as  to  which  way  we  shall  see 
it.  The  one  given  below  can  be  seen  in  at  least 
four  different  ways,  but  we  see  it  much  more  read- 
ily in  one  way  than  in  any  other. 

The  easiest  way  to  interpret  this  figure  is  to 
regard  it  as  a  representation  of  a  staircase  as  seen 
from  above.  It  is  quite  possible,  however,  to  see 
it  as  a  representation  of  the  same  stairs  as  seen 
from  below.  This  latter  interpretation  is  made 
easier  if  you  think  just  how  the  stairs  would  look 
if  seen  from  below,  and  if  at  the  same  time  you 
direct  your  eye  to  the  point  marked  "  a  "  in  the 
cut.  It  is  possible  to  interpret  the  cut,  not  as  a 

183 


THE      THEORY    OF    ADVERTISING 

staircase  at  all,  but  as  a  strip  of  cardboard  bent  at 
right  angles  like  an  accordion  plait  and  situated 
in  front  of  the  apparent  background.  It  is  diffi- 


No.  6 

cult  to  "  see  "  the  figure  this  way.  It  is  still  more 
difficult  to  see  the  figure  as  a  plane  surface  corn- 
posed  of  straight  lines  without  any  perspective. 
This  fourth  interpretation  is  the  one  that  would 
apparently  be  the  most  natural,  for  it  is  the  one 
which  takes  the  cut  for  just  what  it  is  and  adds 
nothing  to  it.  It  might  be  added  that  the  angles 

184 


ILLUSIONS    OF     APPERCEPTION 

in  the  staircase  figure  may  be  seen  as  right  angles, 
acute  angles,  or  oblique  angles. 

No.  6  is  like  the  previous  illustrations  in  that  it 
can  be  seen  in  more  than  one  way,  but  it  is  differ- 
ent in  that  the  figure  seems  to  change  under  the  eye 


No.   7 

more  rapidly  than  the  others.  It  assumes  two  or 
three  different  appearances  in  a  very  few  seconds. 

These  changes  are  assisted  by  moving  the  eye 
from  one  part  of  the  figure  to  another.  In  look- 
ing at  solid  figures  or  bodies  our  eyes  usually  rest 
on  the  nearest  edge  or  surface.  It  comes  about 
in  this  way  that  the  lines  at  which  we  look  are 
very  likely  to  appear  to  be  the  nearest  edge  or 
surface  of  the  solid. 

No.  7  consists  of  a  group  of  either  six  or  seven 
blocks.  If  it  is  looked  at  steadily  for  some  sec- 

185 


THE    THEORY    OF    ADVERTISING 

onds,-  the  blocks  seem  to  fall  and  to  arrange  them- 
selves in  a  new  way.  If  at  first  there  were  but 
six  blocks,  there  may  be  seven  there  after  they 
have  fallen.  Many  people  find  it  very  difficult 
to  count  the  blocks,  for  while  they  are  counting, 
the  number  changes.  If  you  look  at  No.  7 a  and 
hold  an  image  of  it  in  your  mind  while  you 
count  the  blocks  in  No.  7  you  will  probably 
find  six  blocks.  If,  however,  you  first  look  at  No. 


No.  ?a  No.  7b 

76  and  retain  its  image  in  your  mind  you  will  be 
able  to  find  seven  blocks  in  No.  7.  If  the  desired 
results  are  not  secured,  turn  the  page  upside- 
down  and  the  blocks  will  then  certainly  "  fall." 


No.  8 


No.  8,  at  first  sight,  appears  to  most  people  as 
a  book  which  is  half  opened  and  turned  in  such 

1 86 


ILLUSIONS    OF     APPERCEPTION 

a  way  that  the  cover  alone  is  visible.  To  some 
it  will  appear  as  if  the  book  was  opened  toward 
them  and  as  if  two  of  the  pages  were  visible.  If 
we  try  to  think  how  a  book  should  look  when 
opened  and  turned  away  from  us,  and  if  we  then 
look  at  the  figure,  it  will  appear  to  represent  the 
book  of  which  we  are  thinking  and  also  in  the 
position  in  which  we  imagined  it. 

The  upper  or  feathered  end  of  the  arrow  (No. 
9)  is  identical  with  No.  8  and  yet  it  appears  to 


No.  9 

be  flat,  while  that  one  appeared  as  a  solid.  If  we 
cover  up  the  shaft  and  head  of  the  arrow  as  shown 
in  this  figure,  we  can  then  see  the  top  of  the  figure 
as  a  book.  If  we  think  of  it  as  the  end  of  an  arrow 
it  is  flat,  but  if  we  think  of  it  as  a  book  it  imme- 
diately appears  as  a  solid  drawn  in  perspective. 

187 


THE     THEORY    OF    ADVERTISING 

If  I  put  on  red  glasses  and  then  look  at  a  land- 
scape, all  objects  appear  red  to  me.  If  I  put  on 

Principles       green    glasses    a11    objects    appear 
green.     The    objects    are    colored 
Involved  J     .  • 

by  the  glasses  which  were  before 

my  eyes.  In  a  similar  way,  by  apperception,  the 
thoughts  which  are  in  my  mind  color  all  the  objects 
at  which  I  look.  We  see  things  through  our  own. 
eyes  and  with  our  own  minds.  This  is  equiva- 
lent to  saying  that  all  we  see  is  changed  by  the 
thoughts  which  are  in  our  minds  when  we  look.  It 
is  also  equivalent  to  saying  that  we  see  everything 
in  relation  to  our  own  previous  experience.  Al- 
though the  grass  is  green  I  am  unable  to  see  it  as 
green  till  I  remove  the  red  glasses.  The  rose  may 
be  red,  but  it  will  not  appear  so  to  me  till  I  take 
off  the  green  glasses.  In  a  similar  way  I  fail  to 
see  the  green  grass  when  I  am  thinking  of  the  red 
rose  and  I  fail  to  see  the  red  rose  when  I  am  think- 
ing of  the  green  grass,  although  both  are  present 
all  the  time.  We  see  'most  easily  those  things  of 
which  we  happen  to  be  thinking  or  of  which  we  have 
had  previous  experience,  but  we  see  with  difficulty 
those  things  of  which  we  have  had  no  previous  ex- 
perience. 

For  the  practical  advertiser  the  theoretical  dis- 
cussion of  the  illusions  of  apperception  has  a  spe- 
cial importance,  as  it  assists  him  to  discern  the 
causes  of  such  illusions  and  to  avoid  them  in  his 
advertisements.  The  principal  cause  of  all  illu- 

1 88 


ILLUSIONS    OF    APPERCEPTION 

sions  of  apperception  is  found  in  the  fact  that  the 
mind  of  the  reader  is  not  prepared  for  the  reception 

of  the  case  as  presented.    The  second 
Practical  * 

cause  of  such  illusions  is  that  the 
Application  ..          -  ,, 

presentation  of  the  case  is  not  as 

clear  and  distinct  as  it  should  be.  The  first  of 
these  facts  is  the  peculiar  and  distinctive  cause  of 
most  illusions  of  apperception.  The  reader's  mind 
may  be  unprepared  either  because  it  is  distracted 
by  a  competing  thought  or  because  the  -material 
presented  is  entirely  new.  The  presentation  may 
be  lacking  in  clearness  because  in  some  particular 
it  is  ambiguous. 

By  observing  the  part  which  these  two  causes 
played  in  the  illusions  given  above  we  are  better 
prepared  to  understand  and  therefore  to  avoid 
such  illusions.  The  householder  who  misread 
Robinson  for  Winter  had  his  mind  preoccupied 
with  the  thought  of  Robinson.  Winter  had  not 
succeeded  in  occupying  a  place  in  his  mind,  while 
Robinson  had.  On  the  other  hand,  Robinson's 
and  Winter's  advertisements  look  as  much  alike 
as  two  peas  and  neither  has  a  characteristic  fea- 
ture which  would  help  to  identify  it. 

The  readers  of  Everybody's  Magazine  looked  at 
the  lower  right-hand  corner  of  the  page  and  read 
"  The  N.  W.  Knitting  Company,  Minneapolis." 
With  this  thought  in  mind  they  looked  at  the 
Oneita  goods,  but  failed  to  notice  that  they  were 
not  sold  by  the  N.  W.  Knitting  Company.  The 

189 


THE    THEORY    OF    ADVERTISING 

Oneita  people  are  in  part  responsible  for  the  illu- 
sion in  that  they  allowed  their  advertisement  to 
appear  without  an  address  and  on  a  page  with  a 
similar  advertisement  which  has  an  address.  The 
more  recent  advertisements  of  the  Oneita  union 
suits  have  an  address  given  and  therefore  are 
not  so  subject  to  illusions  of  this  sort. 

The  confusion  by  which  readers  supposed  that 
the  portable  houses  were  presented  by  a  full 
half -page  advertisement  is  a  typical  illusion  of  ap- 
perception. The  readers  had  their  minds  preoc- 
cupied by  the  thought  of  portable  houses,  and  so 
the  attention  went  to  portable  houses,  and  not  to 
"  The  Pen  That  Fills  Itself."  The  Conklin  Pen 
Company  did  not  make  it  perfectly  clear  that  the 
hand  was  pointing  to  their  space. 

In  the  confusion  of  hats  referred  to,  Hatter  A 
had  made  his  name  so  familiar  to  the  residents  of 
his  city  that  when  they  read  a  hat  advertisement 
they  did  it  with  their  minds  preoccupied  with  the 
thought  that  it  was  A's  advertisement.  It  came 
about  in  this  way  that  when  they  read  B's  adver- 
tisement they  read  it  as  A's  and  failed  to  notice 
B's  name,  which  was  given  at  the  bottom.  It  is 
quite  possible  that  B  might  have  greatly  reduced 
the  number  of  confusions  if  he  had  put  more  em- 
phasis upon  his  own  name  and  address. 

The  young  lady  who  misread  Armour's  for 
Ivory  had  been  influenced  by  extensive  adver- 
tisements of  Armour's  which  had  appeared  in  her 

190 


ILLUSIONS    OF     APPERCEPTION 

town.  She  had  associated  the  name  of  Armour 
and  soap  so  closely  together  that  when  she  read 
of  soap  she  naturally  assumed  that  it  was  Ar- 
mour's and  failed  to  see  Ivory,  just  as  the  inex- 
perienced proofreader  reads  the  proof  as  he  thinks 
it  tmght  to  be  and  fails  to  observe  some  of  the 
most  glaring  errors.  It  should  also  be  observed 
that  the  soap  advertisement  did  not  emphasize 
the  name  of  Ivory  at  all. 

The  figures  given  above  illustrate  the  same 
principles  of  illusions  of  apperception,  but  they 
make  it  clearer  than  any  confusion  of  concrete 
advertisements  can  possibly  do.  In  most,  if  not 
in  all,  of  the  figures  the  reader  can  voluntarily 
preempt  his  mind  with  a  thought  and  then  can 
see  in  the  figure  that  of  which  he  is  thinking.  He 
can  in  this  way  interpret  each  figure  in  two  or 
more  ways.  By  means  of  these  figures  we  can 
see  the  part  the  mind  adds  to  a  sensation  when 
it  interprets  a  written,  printed,  or  drawn  sym- 
bol. These  figures  also  show  the  need  of  clear 
and  distinct  presentation.  They  are  extremely 
ambiguous,  and  can  with  equal  ease  be  inter- 
preted in  two  or  more  ways.  With  slight  changes 
all  of  these  figures  could  be  remodeled  so  that 
it  would  be  much  more  difficult  to  interpret  them 
in  any  way  except  the  one  which  the  author 
desired. 

That  firm  which  does  the  most  and  the  best 
advertising  is  the  one  that  preempts  the  minds  of 

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THE     THEORY    OF    ADVERTISING 

the  possible  customers  and  so  gets  the  benefit  of 
more  advertisements  than  it  pays  for.  The  firms 

.     . ,  that  advertise  extensively  and  do 

Avoid 

not  fail  to  put  the  proper  emphasis 
Confusions  ,-.  ,      ,  , 

on  their  names  and  addresses  are 

the  firms  that  profit  most  by  confusions.  New 
firms  and  firms  that  put  little  emphasis  on  their 
names  and  addresses  would  be  much  surprised 
if  they  knew  how  many  possible  customers  read 
their  advertisements  and  still  fail  to  notice  who 
they  are. 

Many  advertisers  believe  that  they  should  put 
all  their  emphasis  on  the  quality  of  the  goods. 
They  assume  that  if  any  one  wants  the  goods  thus 
presented  they  will  take  the  trouble  to  ascertain 
the  brand  of  the  goods,  the  name  of  the  firm,  and 
its  address.  Such  a  theory  sounds  well,  but  the 
instances  of  confusion  cited  above  indicate  the 
weakness  of  the  theory  when  applied  to  specific 
advertisements . 

In  this  chapter  we  have  confined  our  attention 
to  illusions  in  which  the  reader  has  confused  one 
advertisement  or  one  figure  for  another.  Ordi- 
narily illusions  do  not  go  to  this  extreme,  but  are 
confined  to  confusions  and  misunderstandings  as 
to  the  specific  arguments  of  the  advertisements. 
Since  we  have  positive  evidence  that  these  ex- 
treme illusions  are  not  uncommon,  we  can  well 
believe  that  illusions  of  a  less  extreme  but  serious 
nature  are  of  all  too  frequent  occurrence.  The 

192 


ILLUSIONS    OF    APPERCEPTION 

number  of  such  illusions  would  be  materially  de- 
creased if  the  writers  of  advertisements  would  see 
to  it  that  the  minds  of  the  possible  customers  are 
prepared  for  the  argument  which  they  are  about 
to  write  and  if  they  would  present  their  argu- 
ments clearly  and  distinctly. 


193 


XIII 

PERSONAL   DIFFERENCES    IN 
MENTAL    IMAGERY 

YESTERDAY  I  looked  in  at  a  shop  window  where 
the  current  magazines  were  displayed.  I  saw 

the   front   outer  cover  of  over   a 
Classes  of      score  Q£  them      NQ       ^  l  git  {n 

Mental 

j  my  study,  miles  away  from  that 

window,  I  can  still  see  the  maga- 
zines with  my  "mind's  eye;"  that  is  to  say,  I 
can  form  a  mental  image  of  the  window  and  the 
magazines.  I  can  describe  some  of  the  covers 
accurately  as  to  color,  shape,  type,  etc.  I  know 
that  there  were  several  magazines  off  to  the  left 
side  of  the  window,  but  all  I  can  see  of  them  now 
is  the  barest  outline.  They  are  so  indistinct  that 
I  cannot  tell  what  they  are  at  all.  My  mental 
image  of  them  is  very  indistinct. 

But  recently  I  was  talking  with  a  friend  while 
a  company  of  young  people  in  an  adjoining  room 
was  playing  on  the  piano  and  violin  and  singing 
college  songs.  As  I  sit  here  I  can  imagine  how 
my  friend's  voice  sounded;  I  can  hear  in  imagi- 
nation how  the  piano  and  the  violin  sounded ;  I 
can  hear  in  imagination  the  tunes  which  they 
were  singing;  that  is  to  say,  I  can  form  a  men- 
tal image  of  the  sounds  which  I  had  previously 
heard.  I  notice,  however,  that  my  mental  image 

194 


DIFFERENCES    IN    MENTAL    IMAGERY 

is  not  so  distinct  and  pronounced  as  the  original 
perception.  I  cannot  form  a  mental  image  of 
some  of  the  notes  which  I  heard  from  the  violin. 
Only  the  more  striking  parts  of  the  tunes  seem 
to  be  plain,  and  even  they  seem  to  be  quite  low 
and  of  much  less  volume  than  the  originals. 

Only  an  hour  ago  I  ate  my  breakfast.  The 
odor  and  taste  of  the  coffee  were  at  that  time 
very  pleasing  to  me.  Now  I  can  imagine  how 
it  smelt  and  tasted,  but  the  images  of  it  are  not 
very  vivid  and  are  not  strong  enough  to  give  me 
any  pleasure  in  recalling  them. 

Last  night  I  was  on  the  ice  playing  hockey. 
The  exercise  was  very  vigorous  and  exciting. 
At  the  time  I  did  not  stop  to  think  how  it  felt 
to  "put  the  puck,"  but  I  must  have  felt  the 
exertion  of  my  muscles  as  I  performed  the  act. 
Now  I  can  form  a  mental  image  of  the  act;  I 
can  feel  my  muscles  as  they  make  the  strain 
necessary  for  the  performance.  I  was  perspir- 
ing when  I  left  the  pond  and  soon  my  woolen 
underwear  became  excessively  unpleasant.  I 
felt  the  unpleasant  contact  on  my  skin  at  that 
time,  and  now  I  can  form  a  mental  image  of  the 
sensation,  which  is  so  strong  that  it  makes  me 
want  to  stop  writing  to  scratch. 

As  is  indicated  by  the  examples  given  above, 
I  can  form  a  mental  image  of  that  which  I  have 
seen,  heard,  tasted,  smelt,  felt  (in  my  muscles), 
or  touched  (with  my  skin).  In  general  it  might 

195 


THE    THEORY    OF    ADVERTISING 

be  said  that  we  can  form  a  mental  image  of  any- 
thing which  we  have  ever  perceived.  There  are 
many  exceptions  to  this  statement,  as  will  be 
shown  later. 

Almost  all  of  our  dreams  and  reveries  and  a 
large  part  of  our  more  serious  thinking  are  com- 
posed of  a  succession  of  these  mental  images  of 
things  which  we  have  previously  experienced. 
We  cannot  see  the  images  in  the  mind  of  our 
neighbor,  but  we  are  likely  to  suppose  that  his 
thinking  is  very  much  like  our  own.  It  was 
formerly  supposed  that  such  was  the  case.  It 
was  assumed  that  the  normal  mind  could  form 
images  of  everything  which  it  had  experienced. 
It  was  further  assumed  that  there  were  no  personal 
differences  as  to  the  clearness  and  vividness  of 
such  mental  images. 

In  1880  Francis  Galton  discovered  that  there 
was  a  great  difference  in  individuals  in  their 

ability    to     form      these      mental 

Personal        .  ^       £        ,      ,, 

_._  images.      He     found     that     some 

Differences  , ,   .  ,  . 

Discovered      Persons  could  form  mental  images 

which   were   almost   as   vivid   and 

strong  as  the  original  perception,  while  for  others 

the  past  was  veiled  in  indistinctness.     He  also 

found   that   certain   persons   could   form   mental 

images   of   one   class   of   perceptions,    but   could 

form  no  mental  images  of  other  classes.     Thus, 

one   man   could    not    imagine    how    his    friends 

looked  when  he  was  absent  from  them;    another 

196 


DIFFERENCES   IN   MENTAL   IMAGERY 

could  not  imagine  how  a  piano  sounded  when  the 
piano  was  out  of  his  hearing. 

Prof.  William  James,  of  Harvard  Univer- 
sity, continued  the  investigations  begun  by  Mr. 
Galton.  He  collected  papers  from  hundreds 
of  persons  in  which  each  one  described  his  own 
image  of -his  breakfast  table.  One  who  is  a  good 
visualizer  writes: 

"This  morning's  breakfast  table  is  both  dim 
and  bright:  it  is  dim  if  I  try  to  think  of  it  when 
my  eyes  are  open  upon  any  object ;  it  is  perfectly 
clear  and  bright  if  I  think  of  it  with  my  eyes 
closed.  All  the  objects  are  clear  at  once,  yet 
when  I  confine  my  attention  to  any  one  object 
it  becomes  far  more  distinct.  I  have  more 
power  to  recall  color  than  any  other  one  thing; 
if,  for  example,  I  were  to  recall  a  plate  decorated 
with  flowers,  I  could  reproduce  in  a  drawing  the 
exact  tones,  etc.  The  color  of  anything  that 
was  on  the  table  is  perfectly  vivid.  There  is 
very  little  limit  to  the  extent  of  my  images:  I 
can  see  all  four  sides  of  a  room;  I  can  see  all 
four  sides  of  two,  three,  four  or  even  more  rooms 
with  such  distinctness  that  if  you  should  ask  me 
what  was  in  any  particular  place  in  any  one,  or 
ask  me  to  count  the  chairs,  etc.,  I  could  do  it 
without  the  least  hesitation.  The  more  I  learn 
by  heart  the  more  clearly  do  I  see  images  of  my 
pages.  Even  before  I  can  recite  the  lines  I  see 
them  so  that  I  could  give  them  very  slowly,  word 

197 


THE     THEORY    OF    ADVERTISING 

for  word,  but  my  mind  is  so  occupied  in  look- 
ing at  my  printed  page  that  I  have  no  idea  of 
what  I  am  saying,  of  the  sense  of  it,  etc.  When 
I  first  found  myself  doing  this,  I  used  to  think 
it  was  merely  because  I  knew  the  lines  imper- 
fectly, but  I  have  quite  convinced  myself  that 
I  really  do  see  an  image.  The  strongest  proof 
that  such  is  really  the  fact  is,  I  think,  the 
following  : 

'  '  I  can  look  down  the  mentally  seen  page  and 
see  the  Words  that  commence  all  the  lines,  and 
from  any  one  of  these  words  I  can  continue  the 
line.  I  find  this  much  easier  to  do  if  the  words 
begin  in  a  straight  line  than  if  there  are  breaks. 
Example  : 

'  'Etant  fait     .     .     . 

"Tous     .     .     . 

"Ades     .     .     . 

"Quefit     .     .     . 


"Avec     .     .     . 
"  Un  fteur     ,     .     . 

"Comme     . 

"(La  Fontaine  8,  iv.)" 

Those  who  are  poor  visualizers  are  likely  to 
suspect  the  writer  of  the  above  paper  as  exag- 
gerating the  vividness  of  his  visual  images,  yet 
there  is  every  reason  to  suppose  that  there  is  no 
exaggeration  about  it. 

One  who  is  a  poor  visualizer  writes  : 
198 


DIFFERENCES   IN   MENTAL   IMAGERY 

"My  ability  to  form  mental  images  seems, 
from  what  I  have  studied  of  other  people's 
images,  to  be  defective  and  somewhat  peculiar. 
The  process  by  which  I  remember  any  partic- 
ular event  is  not  by  any  distinct  images,  but  a 
sort  of  panorama,  the  faintest  impressions  of 
which  are  perceptible  through  a  thick  fog.  I 
cannot  shut  my  eyes  and  get  a  distinct  image 
of  any  one,  although  I  used  to  be  able  to  a  few 
years  ago,  and  the  faculty  seems  to  have  grad- 
ually slipped  away.  In  my  most  vivid  dreams, 
where  the  events  appear  like  the  most  real  facts, 
I  am  often  troubled  with  •  a  dimness  of  sight 
which  causes  the  image  to  appear  indistinct.  To 
come  to  the  question  of  the  breakfast  table,  there 
is  nothing  definite  about  it.  Everything  is  vague. 
I  cannot  say  what  I  see ;  could  not  possibly  count 
the  chairs,  but  I  happen  to  know  that  there  are 
ten.  I  see  nothing  in  detail.  The  chief  thing 
is  a  general  impression  that  I  cannot  tell  what 
I  do  see.  The  color  is  about  the  same,  as  far  as  I 
can  recall  it,  only  very  much  washed  out.  Per- 
haps the  only  color  I  can  see  at  all  distinctly 
is  that  of  the  tablecloth,  and  I  could  probably 
see  the  color  of  the  wall-paper  if  I  could  remem- 
ber what  color  it  was." 

Every  year  I  ask  each  of  my  students  in  psy- 
chology to  write  out  in  full  a  description  of  his 
mental  image  of  his  breakfast  table,  a  railroad 
train,  and  a  football  game.  In  these  papers  are 

199 


THE     THEORY    OF    ADVERTISING 

examples  of  as  good  and   as  poor  visualizers  as 
those  given   from  the  papers  collected    by    Pro- 
fessor James.     I   have  found   that 
Investigations  there  is  not  only  a  personal  differ- 

Continued      ence  in  the  ability  to  form  visual 
images,  but  that  the  same   differ- 
ences exist  for  the  other  classes   of  perceptions. 
One   student   who   has  strong    auditory  imagery 
writes  as  follows: 

"When  I  think  of  the  breakfast  table  I  do 
not  seem  to  have  a  clear  visual  image  of  it.  I 
can  see  the  length  of  it,  the  three  chairs,— 
though  I  can't  tell  the  color  or  shape  of  these,— 
the  white  cloth  and  something  on  it,  but  I  can't 
see  the  pattern  of  the  dishes  or  any  of  the  food. 
I  can  very  plainly  hear  the  rattle  of  the  dishes 
and  of  the  silver  and  above  this  hear  the  conver- 
sation, also  the  other  noises,  such  as  a  train 
which  passes  every  morning  while  we  are  at 
breakfast.  Again  in  a  football  game  I  dis- 
tinctly hear  the  noise,  but  do  not  see  clearly 
anything  or  anybody.  I  hear  the  stillness 
when  every  one  is  intent  and  then  the  loud 
cheering.  Here  I  notice  the  differences  of  pitch 
and  tone." 

I  had  read  that  some  people  were  unable  to 
imagine  sounds  which  they  had  heard,  but  it 
had  not  impressed  me,  for  I  had  supposed  that 
such  persons  were  great  exceptions.  I  was 
truly  surprised  when  I  found  so  many  of  my 

200 


DIFFERENCES   IN   MENTAL   IMAGERY 

students  writing  papers  similar  to  those  from 
which  extracts  are  here  given: 

"My  mental  imagery  is  visual,  as  I  seem  to 
see  things  and  not  to  hear,  feel,  or  smell  them. 
The  element  of  sound  seems  practically  never 
to  enter  in.  When  I  think  of  a  breakfast  table 
or  a  football  game  I  have  a  distinct  image.  I 
see  colors,  but  hear  no  sound." 

Another,  in  describing  his  image  of  a  railroad 
train,  writes: 

' '  I  am  not  able  to  state  whether  I  hear  the 
train  or  not.  I  am  inclined  to  think  that  it  is 
a  noiseless  one.  It  is  hard  for  me  to  conceive 
of  the  sound  of  a  bell,  for  instance.  I  can  see 
the  bell  move  to  and  fro,  and  for  an  instant 
seem  to  hear  the  ding,  dong;  but  it  is  gone 
before  I  can  identify  it.  When  I  try  to  con- 
ceive of  shouts  I  am  like  one  groping  in  the  dark. 
I  cannot  possibly  retain  the  conception  of  a 
sound  for  any  length  of  time." 

Another,  who  seems  to  have  no  vivid  images 
of  any  kind,  writes : 

"When  I  recall  the  breakfast  table  I  see  it 
and  the  persons  around  it.  The  number  of 
them  is  distinct,  for  there  is  only  one  of  them 
on  each  side  of  the  table.  But  they  seem  like 
mere  objects  in  space.  Only  when  I  think  of 
each  separately  do  I  clearly  see  them.  As  for 
the  table,  all  I  see  is  a  general  whiteness,  inter- 
spersed with  objects.  I  hear  nothing  at  all,  and 

201 


THE     THEORY     OF    ADVERTISING 

indeed  the  whole  thing  is  so  indistinct  it  bewilders 
me  when  I  think  of  it.  My  mental  imagery 
is  very  vague  and  hazy,  unless  I  have  previously 
taken  special  notice  of  what  I  now  have  an  image. 
For  instance,  when  I  have  an  image  of  a  certain 
person,  I  cannot  tell  his  particular  characteristics 
unless  my  attention  was  formerly  directed  to 
them." 

Another  writes: 

1 '  There  is  no  sound  in  connection  with  any 
image.  In  remembering  I  call  up  an  incident 
and  gradually  fill  out  the  details.  I  can  very 
seldom  recall  how  anything  sounds.  One  sound 
from  the  play  'Robespierre,'  by  Henry  Irving, 
which  I  heard  about  two  years  ago  and  which 
I  could  recall  some  time  afterward,  I  have  been 
unable  to  recall  this  fall,  though  I  have  tried  to 
do  so.  I  can  see  the  scene  quite  perfectly,  the 
position  of  the  actors  and  stage  setting,  even  the 
action  of' a  player  who  brought  out  the  sound." 

Quite  a  large  proportion  of  persons  find  it 
impossible  to  imagine  motion  at  all.  As  they 
think  of  a  football  game  all  the  players  are 
standing  stock  still;  they  are  as  they  are  rep- 
resented in  a  photograph.  They  are  in  the  act 
of  running,  but  no  motion  is  represented.  Like- 
wise, the  banners  and  streamers  are  all  motion- 
less. They  find  it  impossible  to  think  of  such 
a  thing  as  motion.  Others  find  that  the  motions 
are  the  most  vivid  part  of  their  images.  What 

202 


DIFFERENCES  IN   MENTAL  IMAGERY 

they  remember  of  a  scene  is  principally  movement. 
One  writes: 

"When  the  word  'breakfast  table'  was  given 
out  I  saw  our  breakfast  table  at  home,  espe- 
cially the  table  and  the  white  tablecloth.  The 
cloth  seemed  to  be  the  most  distinct  object.  I 
can  see  each  one  in  his  place  at  the  table.  I  can 
see  no  color  except  that  of  the  tablecloth.  The 
dishes  are  there,  but  are  very  indistinct.  I  can- 
not hear  the  rattle  of  the  dishes  or  the  voices 
very  distinctly;  the  voices  seem  much  louder 
than  the  dishes,  but  neither  are  very  clear.  I 
can  feel  the  motions  which  I  make  during  the 
breakfast  hour.  I  feel  myself  come  in,  sit  down, 
and  begin  to  eat.  I  can  see  the  motions  of 
those  about  me  quite  plainly.  I  believe  the 
feeling  of  motion  was  the  most  distinct  feeling 
I  had.  When  the  word  'railroad  train'  was 
given,  I  saw  the  train  very  plainly  just  stopping 
in  front  of  the  depot.  I  saw  the  people  getting 
on  the  train;  these  people  were  very  indistinct. 
It  is  their  motions  rather  than  the  people  them- 
selves which  I  see.  I  can  feel  myself  getting 
on  the  train,  finding  a  seat,  and  sitting  down. 
I  cannot  hear  the  noise  of  the  train,  but  can  hear 
rather  indistinctly  the  conductor  calling  the 
stations.  I  believe  my  mental  imagery  is  more 
motile  [of  movement]  than  anything  else.  Al- 
though I  can  see  some  things  quite  plainly,  I 
seem  to  feel  the  movements  most  distinctly." 

203 


THE    THEORY    OF    ADVERTISING 

A  very  few  in  describing  their  images  of  the 
breakfast  table  made  special  mention  of  the 
taste  of  the  food  and  of  its  odor.  I  have  dis- 
covered no  one  whose  prevailing  imagery  is 
for  either  taste  or  smell.  With  very  many  the 
image  of  touch  is  very  vivid.  They  can  imag- 
ine just  how  velvet  feels,  how  a  fly  feels  on  one's 
nose,  the  discomfort  of  a  tight  shoe,  and  the 
pleasure  of  stroking  a  smooth  marble  surface. 

It  is  a  well-observed  fact  that  different  classes 

of  society  think  differently  and  that  arguments 

which  would  appeal  to  one  class 

would  be  worthless  with  another. 
and  Mental      A  ,  ... 

Im  A  man  s  occupation,   his  age,   his 

environment,  etc.,  make  a  dif 
ference  in  his  manner  of  thinking,  and  in  the 
motives  which  prompt  him  to  action.  In  ap- 
pealing to  people  we  ordinarily  think  of  these 
conditions  and  formulate  our  argument  in  accord- 
dance  with  these  motives.  That  is  to  say,  we 
address  ourselves  to  a  particular  social  or  indus- 
trial class.  The  study  of  mental  imagery  makes 
it  evident  that  there  are  personal  differences 
apart  from  differences  due  to  environment, 
but  which  are  inherent  in  the  individual.  Some 
well-educated  persons  are  so  destitute  of  visual 
images  that  they  are  utterly  unable  to  appreciate 
the  description  of  a  scene  when  it  is  described  in 
visual  terms.  Many  persons  find  themselves 
bored  even  by  Victor  Hugo's  description  of  the 

204 


DIFFERENCES  IN  MENTAL   IMAGERY 

scene  of  the  battle  of  Waterloo.  To  them  the 
whole  scene  is  unimaginable  and  therefore  unin- 
telligible and  uninteresting.  I  have  been  inter- 
ested in  observing  that  the  authors  which  are 
read  with  universal  delight  are  those  who  appeal 
to  all  the  various  classes  of  mental  imagery. 
Dickens,  Sir  Walter  Scott,  Tennyson,  Washing- 
ton Irving,  and  many  of  the  authors  who  are 
universally  appreciated,  appeal  to  and  awaken 
many  auditory  images  as  well  as  images  of  taste, 
smell,  touch,  and.  motion ;  Browning  appeals  most 
often  and  most  exclusively  to  visual  images.  It 
is  quite  certain  that  a  person  can  best  be 
appealed  to  through  his  dominating  imagery. 
A  person  who  has  visual  images  that  are  very 
clear  and  distinct  appreciates  descriptions  of 
scenes.  A  person  with  auditory  imagery  delights 
in  having  auditory  images  awakened.  The  same 
holds  true  for  the  other  classes  of  mental  imagery. 
Of  all  the  writings  of  Washington  Irving  "The 
Legend  of  Sleepy  Hollow"  is  one  of  the  favorites. 
One  element  of  strength  in  this  is  the  manner  in 
which  the  author  succeeds  in  awakening  the  differ- 
ent classes  of  mental  imagery  in  the  reader.  Take, 
for  example,  the  following  passages,  in  which  the 
"eye-minded"  reader  sees  the  scene  while  the 
"ear-minded"  reader  hears  that  which  is  being 
described : 

"  Not    far    from    this    village,   perhaps    about 
two  miles,   there  is  a  little  valley,  or  rather  lap 

205 


THE    THEORY    OF    ADVERTISING 

of  land,  among  high  hills,  which  is  one  of  the 
quietest  places  in  all  the  world.  A  small  brook 
glides  through  it,  with  just  murmur  enough  to 
lull  one  to  repose;  and  the  occasional  whistle  of 
a  quail,  or  tapping  of  a  woodpecker,  is  almost 
the  only  sound  that  ever  breaks  in  on  the  uni- 
form tranquility.  ...  I  had  wandered  into 
it  at  noontime,  when  all  nature  is  peculiarly 
quiet,  and  was  startled  by  the  roar  of  my  own 
gun  as  it  broke  the  Sabbath  stillness  around 
and  was  prolonged  and  reverberated  by  the 
angry  echoes." 

As  an  example  of  the  way  in  which  Washing- 
ton Irving  could  awaken  images  of  taste  and 
of  odor,  examine  the  following,  taken  from  the 
same  selection: 

"The  pedagogue's  mouth  watered  as  he  looked 
upon  this  sumptuous  promise  of  luxurious  winter 
fare.  In  his  devouring  mind's  eye  he  pictured 
to  himself  every  roasting  pig  running  about 
with  a  pudding  in  his  belly  and  an  apple  in  his 
mouth;  the  pigeons  were  snugly  put  to  bed  in  a 
comfortable  pie,  and  tucked  in  with  a  coverlet 
of  crust;  the  geese  were  swimming  in  their  own 
gravy,  and  the  ducks  pairing  cosily  in  dishes, 
like  snug  married  couples,  with  a  decent  com- 
petency of  onion  sauce.  In  the  porkers  he  saw 
carved  out  the  future  sleek  side  of  bacon  and 
juicy,  relishing  ham;  not  a  turkey  but  he  beheld 
daintily  trussed  up,  with  its  gizzard  under  its 

206 


DIFFERENCES  IN   MENTAL   IMAGERY 

wing  and  perad venture,  a  necklace  of  savory  sau- 
sage,"  etc. 

This  author  is  not  regarded  as  one  of  the  great- 
est, but  certainly  the  fascination  for  his  writings 
is  found  in  part  in  the  fact  that 
Practical       in   his    imagination   he   could   see 

Application  the  woodland,  he  could  hear  the 
murmur  of  the  brook,  he  could 
taste  the  pies,  he  could  smell  the  fragrance  of 
the  orchards,  he  could  feel  the  bumps  as  Ichabod 
Crane  rode  the  old  horse  Gunpowder,  he  could 
feel  the  muscle  contract  in  the  brawny  arms  of 
Brom  Bones.  Having  all  these  images  distinct 
himself,  he  depicted  them  so  well  that  similar 
images  are  awakened  in  us  in  as  far  as  we  are 
capable  of  imagining  what  he  described.  It  is 
not  to  be  supposed  that  Washington  Irving 
intentionally  tried  to  awaken  in  his  readers 
these  various  classes  of  images,  but  he  did  uncon- 
sciously what  it  might  be  wise  for  us  to  do  con- 
sciously. 

An  advertiser,  as  well  as  any  other  author, 
might  do  well  to  examine  his  own  writings  to 
see  what  sort  of  images  he  is  appealing  to.  It 
is  in  general  best  to  appeal  to  as  many  different 
classes  of  images  as  possible,  for  in  this  way 
variety  is  given  and  each  reader  is  appealed 
to  in  the  sort  of  imagery  in  which  he  thinks 
most  readily  and  by  means  of  which  he  is  most 
easily  influenced. 

207 


XIV 

PRACTICAL   APPLICATION    OF 
MENTAL   IMAGERY 

THE  young  men  and  women  of  to-day  are  ac- 
cused of  being  poorer  spellers  than  their  parents. 
The  reasons  for  this  may  be  many,  but  one  has 
direct  bearing  upon  our  subject  of  discussion. 
Formerly  children  in  school  spelled  orally.  They 
saw  the  word  printed  in  their  books;  they  did 
more  or  less  writing,  and  then  felt  the  move- 
ments of  their  hands  and  arms  as  they  wrote ; 
they  were  called  upon  to  spell  the  word  in  class 
orally,  and  so  heard  how  it  sounded.  They 
thus  had  three  "cues"  for  the  word  —  they  saw 
it,  they  felt  it,  and  they  heard  it.  When  they 
were  called  upon  to  spell  a  word  they  had  all 
of  these  three  cues  to  assist  them  in  remember- 
ing how  it  was  spelled,  i.  e.,  to  assist  them  in 
forming  an  image  of  it.  Some  years  ago  oral 
spelling  was  displaced  by  written  spelling.  In 
this  way  one  of  the  cues  was  abandoned,  —  the 
oral  one,  —  and  it  was  found  that  pupils  made 
more  mistakes  in  writing  than  those  who  had 
spelled  orally.  Because  of  this  fact  oral  spelling 
is  being  brought  back  to  the  schoolroom.  An 
attempt  is  being  made  to  have  the  scholars 
see,  hear,  and  feel  the  word,  and,  in  this  way, 
their  spelling  will  be  better  than  if  they  omitted 

208 


APPLICATION    OF    MENTAL    IMAGERY 

one  of  the  three  processes.  The  scholar  knows 
the  word  better  and  can  form  a  more  distinct 
image  of  it  if  he  has  these  three  cues  to  assist 
him. 

In  a  former  age  the  seller,  the  buyer,  and 
the  commodity  were  brought  together.  The 
seller  described  and  exhibited  his  wares.  The 
buyer  saw  the  goods,  heard  of  them,  tasted  them, 
smelt  them,  felt,  and  lifted  them.  He  tested 
them  by  means  of  every  sense  organ  to  which 
they  could  appeal.  In  this  way  the  buyer 
became  acquainted  with  the  goods.  His  per- 
ception of  them  was  as  complete  as  it  could  be 
made.  In  these  latter  days  the  market  place  has 
given  way  to  the  office.  The  consequent  separa- 
tion of  buyer,  seller,  and  commodity  made  the 
commercial  traveler  with  his  sample  case  seem  a 
necessity.  But,  with  the  growing  volume  of 
business,  and  with  the  increased  need  for  more 
economical  forms  of  transacting  business,  the 
printed  page,  as  a  form  of  advertisement,  has 
superseded  the  market  place,  and  is,  in  many 
cases,  displacing  the  commercial  traveler.  In 
this  transition  from  the  market  place  and  the 
commercial  traveler  to  the  printed  page,  the 
advertiser  must  be  on  his  guard  to  preserve  as 
many  as  possible  of  the  good  features  of  the 
older  institutions.  In  the  two  older  forms  of 
barter  all  the  senses  of  the  purchaser  were  ap- 
pealed to,  if  possible,  and  in  addition  to  this  the 

209 


THE     THEORY     OF    ADVERTISING 

word  of  mouth  of  the  seller  was  added  to  increase 
the  impressions  and  to  call  special  attention  to 
the  strong  features  of  the  commodity.  In  the 
printed  page  the  word  of  mouth  is  the  only  feature 
which  is  of  necessity  entirely  absent.  Indeed, 
the  printed  page  cannot  appeal  directly  to  any  of 
the  senses  except  the  eye,  but  the  argument  may 
be  of  such  a  nature  that  the  reader's  senses  are 
appealed  to  indirectly  through  his  imagination. 

One  of  the  great  weaknesses  of  the  present- 
day  advertising  is  found   in  the  fact  that   the 
writer  of  the  advertisement  fails 
to   appeal  thus   indirectly  to   the 

senses.       How     many    advertisers 
Advertisements 

describe    a   piano   so   vividly  that 

the  reader  can  hear  it  ?  How  many  food  products 
are  so  described  that  the  reader  can  taste  the 
food?  How  many  advertisements  describe  a 
perfume  so  that  the  reader  can  smell  it?  How 
many  describe  an  undergarment  so  that  the 
reader  can  feel  the  pleasant  contact  with  his 
body?  Many  advertisers  seem  never  to  have 
thought  of  this,  and  make  no  attempt  at  such 
descriptions. 

The  cause  of  this  deficiency  is  twofold.  In 
the  first  place,  it  is  not  easy  in  type  to  appeal 
to  any  other  sense  than  that  of  sight.  Other 
than  visual  images  are  difficult  to  awaken  when 
the  means  employed  is  the  printed  page.  In 
the  second  place,  the  individual  writers  are  defi- 

210 


APPLICATION   OF   MENTAL   IMAGERY 

cient  in  certain  forms  of  mental  imagery,  and 
therefore  are  not  adepts  in  describing  articles 
in  terms  which  to  themselves  are  not  significant. 
This  second  ground  for  failure  in  writing  effec- 
tive advertisements  will  be  made  clear  by  the 
following  examples  taken  from  good  and  from 
poor  advertisements.  "Good"  and  "poor"  are 
used  here  in  a  very  narrow  sense.  For  conven- 
ience' sake  these  advertisements  are  called  good 
which  are  good  according  to  the  single  standard 
here  under  consideration. 

A  piano  is  primarily  not  a  thing  to  look  at 
or  an  object  for  profitable  investment,  but  it 
is  a  musical  instrument.  It  might 
be  beautiful  and  cheap,  but  still 
be  very  undesirable.  The  chief 
thing  about  a  piano  is  the  quality  of  its  tone. 
Many  advertisers  of  pianos  do  not  seem  to  have 
the  slightest  appreciation  of  this  fact.  As  a  first 
example  of  this,  read  the  following  advertisement 
(No.  i),  in  which  an  entire  advertisement  of  the 
Emerson  piano  is  reproduced  exactly,  with  the 
single  exception  that  the  word  " incubator"  is 
substituted  for  "piano." 

The  Emerson  advertisement  is  not  peculiar 
because  of  its  deficiency.  In  fact,  the  majority 
of  piano  advertisements  are  equally  poor.  The 
following  advertisement  of  the  Vose  (No.  2)  be- 
longs to  the  same  class.  In  it  the  word  "  camera" 
is  substituted  for  "piano." 

211 


THE    THEORY    OF    ADVERTISING 


What  has  been  said  of  these  two  advertise- 
ments  would   hold   true   of   the   advertisements 


Emerson 

Incubators 


TF  any  one  offers  you  a  "just  as 
*•  good"  Incubator  at  a  lower  price 
than  an  EMERSON  costs,  you  had 
better  buy  it  —  but  make  sure  it  is 
"just  as  good."  A  reputation  for 
reliable  goods  is  better  than  a  repu- 
tation for  low  prices.  Our  prices, 
however,  must  be  right  or  there 
would  not  be  to-day  over  76,000 
Emerson  Incubators  in  use! 

Write  for  illustrated  catalogue  and  our 
easy  payment  plan. 

EMERSON  INCUBATOR  CO. 

BOSTON  DEPT.  E.  CHICAGO 

120  Boylston  St.  195  Wabash  Ave. 


No.  i 


in  the  current   issues  of  the  magazines   of  the 
Gabler  piano,  and  of  many  others. 

These  advertisements  apply  equally  well  for 
paintings,      perfumes,      fountain-pens,     bicycles, 


212 


APPLICATION    OF    MENTAL    IMAGERY 

snuff,  or  sausages,  and  would  be  equally  poor 
if  used  to  advertise  any  of  them.  They  are 
not  specific,  and  do  not  describe  or  refer  in  any 
way  to  the  essential  characteristic  of  a  pianc. 


•M- 


vose 


CAMERAS 

!   HAVE  BEEN  ESTABLISHED  50  YEARS  S 

!and   are   receiving   more  favorable   comments   to-day     • 
from    an    artistic    standpoint    than    all    other    makes     4 


combined. 

WE 


Challenge  Comparisons.  | 

A  By  our  easy  payment  plan,  every  family  in  mod-  A 

I  erate  circumstances  can  own  a  vose  camera.  We  • 

'  allow  a  liberal  price  for  old  instruments  in  exchange,  1 

»  and  deliver  the  camera  in  your  house  free  of  expense.  * 

You  can  deal  with  us  at  a  distant  point  the  same  as  in  1 

A      Boston.     Send  for  catalogue  and  full  information.  1 

VOSE  &  SONS  CAMERA  CO.,  I 

4     1  63  Boylston  Street,         ...         Boston  i 


No.  2 

They  awaken  no  images  of  sound;  they  do  not 
make  us  hear  the  piano  in  our  imagination. 

The  advertisement  of  the  Blasius  (No.  3)  is  an 
attempt  in  the  right  direction.  The  musical 
scale  suggests  music  specifically;  the  picture 
of  the  piano  recalls  the  sounds  of  the  music  to 
a  certain  extent;  the  lady  at  the  piano  suggests 


THE  THEORY  OF  AD  VERTISI NG 

music,  for  she  is  not  turning  around  to  be 
looked  at  (cf.  an  advertisement  of  Ivers  &  Pond 
pianos  in  the  current  magazines),  but  is  intent 
upon  her  playing.  The  text  also  uses  words 
whose  sole  function  is  to  awaken  images  of  sound. 
These  expressions  appear  in  the  advertisement: 
" Excellent  tone,"  "the  sweetest  tone  I  ever 


No.  3 

heard,"  "sweet  and  melodious  in  tone,"  "like 
a  grand  church  organ  for  power  and  volume; 
and  a  brilliant,  sweet- toned  piano,  in  one." 

The  ^advertisement  of  the  Packard  Piano 
(No.  4)  says  more  in  three  inches  than  many 
advertisements  of  pianos  say  in  a  whole  page. 
"Lasting  Tone-beauty"  is  put  in  display  type. 
Two  children  are  intent  upon-  their  playing, 
and  two  others  seem  to  be  appreciating  the 
music.  This  piano  is  represented  by  word  and 

214 


APPLICATION    OF    MENTAL   IMAGERY 

by  illustration  as  doing  just  what  we  want  a 
piano  to  do.  It  is  furnishing  pleasing  amuse- 
ment to  all  those,  who  hear  it. 

The    man    who    cannot    appreciate    the    tone 


Lasting  Tone-beauty 

is  what  one  demands  m  a  piano.  The 
Packard  tone  is  singularly  rich  and  of 
great  endurance.  "  Practice  "  will  not  de- 
stroy it.  Becomes  ampler  and  more  sym- 
pathetic with  use.  Superior  materials  and 
skillful  workmanship  insure  this  perma- 
nence of  tone-loveliness.  % 

We  will  send  catalogue  and  full  particu- 
lars upon  request.    Address  P  O.  Box  C 

THE  PACKARD  CO..      Fort  Wayne,  ind. 

No.  4 

of  a  piano,  and  who  can  form  but  indistinct 
images  of  musical  tones,  is  not  a  good  man  to 
write  the  advertisements  for  a  music*  house. 
He  might  improve  his  style  of  writing  by  read- 
ing selections  in  which  the  author  shows  by 
his  writing  that  he  hears  in  imagination  what 
he  describes  and  nis  descriptions  are  so  vivid 
that  he  makes  us  hear  it  too. 

215 


THE     THEORY    OF    ADVERTISING 

In  determining  which  foods   I   shall  eat  it  is 
a    matter    of    some    importance    to    know    how 

the  goods  are  manufactured,  what 
Advertisements  the       {ce    {      how    it    ^  ed 

of  Foods        c  .      . 

for   the   table,  and   whether   it   is 

nourishing  or  harmful  to  my  system.  The  one 
essential  element,  however,  is  the  taste.  When 
I  look  over  a  bill  of  fare  I  seek  out  what  I 
think  will  taste  good.  When  I  order  groceries  I 
order  what  pleases  and  tickles  my  palate.  I  want 
the  food  that  makes  me  smack  my  lips,  that 
makes  my  mouth  water.  Under  these  circum- 
stances all  other  considerations  are  minimized  to 
the  extreme. 

In  advertisements  of  food  products  I  have 
been  surprised  to  note  that  many  foods  are 
advertised  as  if  they  had  no  taste  at  all.  One 
would  suppose  that  the  food  was  to-  be  taken 
by  means  of  a  hypodermic  injection  and  not 
by  the  ordinary  process  of  taking  the  food  into 
the  mouth  and  hence  into  contact  with  the'  organ 
of  taste.  The  advertisers  seem  to.be  at  a  loss 
to  know  what  to  say  about  their  foods,  and  so 
have,  in  many  cases,  expressed  themselves  in 
such  general  terms  that  their  advertisements 
could  be  applied  equally  well  to  almost  any  prod- 
uct whatever.  The  two  reproduced  advertise- 
ments (Nos.  5  and  6),  taken  from  recent  issues 
of  household  periodicals,  are  samples  of  such 
meaningless  generalities. 

216 


APPLICATION  OF  MENTAL  IMAGERY 

These  two  advertisements  are  reproduced  ex- 
actly with  the  single  exception  that  the  names 
of  the  commodities  have  been  changed  in  each 
case.  I  would  suggest  to  these  firms  that  they 
might  improve  their  advertisements  by  leaving 
off  the  name  of  the  goods  entirely  and  then 
offer  a  prize  to  the  person  who  could  guess  what 


are  THE  BEST 

Best  beans  only  are  used. 
Extra  care  exercised  in  blending, 
Corn  shells  and  dirt  are  removed, 
Adulterations -oot  permitted, 
Use  of  most  improved  machinery.  . 
Standard  of  merit— our  watchword, 
Endless  watchfulness  during  manufacture. 

Cost  no  more  than  others 


No.  5 

they  were  advertisements  of,  or  else  offer  the 
prize  for  the  one  who  should  suggest  the  largest 
list  of  goods  which  could  be  equally  well  pre- 
sented by  these  advertisements. 

Some  advertisers  of  food  are  evidently  chronic 
dyspeptics  and  take  it  for  granted  that  all  others 
are  in  the  same  condition.  They  have  nothing 
to  say  about  their  foods  except  that  they  have 
wonderful  medicinal  properties.  To  me  a  food 

217 


THE     THEORY    OF    ADVERTISING 

which  is  only  healthful  savors  of  hospitals  and 
sickrooms,  and  is  something  which  a  well  man 
or  woman  would  not  want. 


The  Smile  that  Won't  Come  Off 


More  Parlor  Matches  the  Grocer  said, 
No  other  brand  will  do  instead ; 

And  o'er  his  kindly  features  spread 
The  Smile  that  won't  come  off. 


Look  for  the  Coupon  in  the  Packag 


No.  6 

There  are  advertisers  who  appreciate  the 
epicurean  tendency  of  the  ordinary  man  and 
woman.  They  describe  foods  in  such  a  way 
that  we  immediately  want  what  they  describe. 

218 


r 


That  very  old  proverb 
about  reaching  the 
heart  of  a  man  is  best 


NABISCO 

Sugar 
Wafers 


A  Fairy  Sandwich  with 
an  upper  and  lower 
crust  of  indescribable 
delicacy ,  separated  with 
a  creamy  flavoring  of 

Lemon,  Orange, 
Chocolate,  Vanilla, 

Strawberry, 
Raspberry,  or  Mint. 

Ask  for  your  favorite  fiav»t 

NATIONAL  BISCUIT  COMPANY 


No.  7 


THE    THEORY    OF    ADVERTISING 

Of  all  the  advertisements  in  current  magazines 
perhaps  the  one  of  the  National  Biscuit  Com-. 
pany  reproduced  herewith  (No.  7)  presents. 
their  product  in  the  most  tempting  manner.. 
According  to  this  advertisement  "Nabisco"  is, 
something  to  be  eaten,  and  it  is  presented  in  such 
a  way  that  it  would  seem  that  one  cannot  read 
of  it  without  being  convinced  that  it  is  good  and 
something  that  he  wants  —  and  the  quicker  he 
gets  it  the  better. 

This  advertisement  has  character  and  individ-. 
uality.  Its  statements  could  not  be  applied  to 
anything  but  foods  or,  indeed,  to  anything  but 
Nabisco.  They  do  not  say  that  Nabisco  is 
wholesome,  but  when  I  read  them  I  feel  sure  that 
Nabisco  would  agree  with  me. 

The  skin  is  the  sense  organ  by  means  of  which. 
we  receive  sensations  of  pressure,  touch,  heat, 

and    cold,    and    it    is    the    organ 
Advertisements  whkh      iveg   more   '  <  comfortable  » 


and    '  '  uncomfortable  "    feelings. 
Clothing 

than    any    other.      Having    expe- 

rienced touch,  pressure,  cold,  heat,  and  the 
comforts  and  pains  connected  with  our  skin, 
we  should  be  able  to  imagine  such  sensations,, 
and  to  seek  the  pleasant  and  to  avoid  the  un- 
pleasant. Some  people  are  very  deficient  in 
imagining  the  sensations  which  we  receive  from 
the  skin,  and,  strange  to  say,  not  a  few  of  these 
deficient  individuals  have  been  put  in  charge; 

220 


APPLICATION    OF    MENTAL    IMAGERY 

of  the  advertisements  which  have  to  do  with 
these  very  sensations.  One  of  the  prominent 
characteristics  of  all  clothing  is  that  it  gives 


DETTKR  leather  has 
*~*  never  been  tanned 
than  goes  into  Craw- 
ford Shoes. 

That  s      whv      they 
wear  so  long. 


boot 

Calf,   double    sol 
•I,  lace  style 
First-class    Healers 
handle   Crawford   Shoes,    'if   nol 
sold  in  your  vicinity  we  can  fit  yen 
i?b   our  Mail-Order   Depart 


nt.     Individual  attention  is  given 

ice.  $3.75  per  pair,  delivery  charges  prepaid 


Crawford  Shoe  Makers 

"-Es" 

,.™..~ 


No.  8 

us  either  a  pleasant  or  an  unpleasant  sensation 
by  means   of  its  contact  with   our  bodies. 

Shoes  are  sold  for  different  prices;  therefore 
the  price  is  to  be  considered.  They  are  things 
that  wear  out  sooner  or  later;  we  therefore 

221 


THE    THEORY    OF    ADVERTISING 


must  consider  their  durability.  They  are  things 
that  we  see  with  our  eyes;  therefore  their  ap- 
pearance —  style  —  -  must  be  considered.  Lastly, 

CROTSSET 


SHOE 


'0m 


Regarding  Shoes' 
in  general 


No  other  portion  of  the 
human  body  is  so  tortured, 
in  the  efforts  made  to  clothe 
and  protect  it,  as  the  feet. 

The  experience  of  sur- 
geons proves  that  a  large 
proportion  of  sprained 
joints,  ruptured  ligaments 
and  fractured  limbs  are  the 
natural  result  of  defective, 
weakened,  deformed  feet. 

Shoe  friction  and  inequal- 
ity of  pressure  cause  pre- 
mature wear  at  particular 
points,  as  well  as  serious 
discomfort  to  the  feet. 

There  is  no  reason  why 
footwear  should  not  be 
comfortable  as  well  as  styl- 
ish and  have  at  the  same 
time  the  practical  value  of 
serviceableness. 

The  day  of  the  high- 
priced,  custom-made  shoe  is 
over.  Modern  shoe  manu- 
facturing uses  precisely  the 
samekind  of  materials, made 
up  upon  correct  anatomical 
principles,  and  guaranteed 
to  give  comfon,  together 
with  fine  wearing  quality. 


'Crossett    Shoes 
in  particular 

^— — 

Crossett  Shoes  fit  the  feet, 
nstead  of  making  the  feet 
fit  the  shoes. 

They  support  at  every 
point  the  series  of  arches 
of  which  the  human  fob!  is 
composed— providing  an  in- 
ner space  which  the  foorex- 
actly  fills  without  restraint. 

They  go  far  toward  seiour- 
ing  a  safe  step,  a  firm  gail 
and  a  graceful  carriage. 

They  can  be  manuiac- 
lured  at  a  low  price  owing 
to  admirable  methods  and 
perfection  of  machinery — 
in  short  they  are  a  typical 
American  product. 

They  have  an  individual- 
ity of  design,  and  that  cer- 
tain character  which  is  the 
essence  of  good  style. 

The  workmanship  and 
finish  of  each  shoe  is  there- 
suit  of  nearly  twenty  y^irs 
of  constant  improvement  in 
materials  and  methods. 

The  name  and  price  is 
woven  in  the  strap  al 
the  back  of  every  Crossett 
Shoe. 


LEWIS  A.  CROSSETT.  INC..  MAKER..  NORTH  ABINCTON.  MASS. 

No.  9 

-but  not  last  considered  by  the  purchaser,— 
shoes  come  into  close  contact  with  our  skins, 
and  sensations  that  are  either  pleasant  or  pain- 
ful result;  we  must  therefore  consider  the  fit 
and  comfort  of  the  shoe  A  very  common  defi- 

222f 


APPLICATION   OF   MENTAL  IMAGERY 

ciency  in  shoe  advertisements  is  found  in  the 
failure  of  the  advertiser  to  imagine  the  comfort 
of  the  shoe  advertised,  and  to  express  it  in  his 
argument.  As  a  typical  advertisement  of  this 
sort  consider  the  advertisement  of  the  Crawford 
shoe  (No.  8).  It  might  well  be  the  ad  vert is- 
ment  of  a  leather  pocket-book  if  a  few  insignifi- 
cant changes  were  made. 

In  the  advertisement  of  the  Crossett  shoes 
(No.  9)  the  text  matter  is  most  excellent.  The 
writer  is  one  who  can  appreciate  the  comfort  of 
a  good-fitting  and  easy  shoe;  he  has  been  able 
to  imagine  the  sensation,  and  he  has  described  it 
so  vividly  that  the  reader  feels  in  imagination 
the  comfort  of  a  Crossett  shoe. 

Omega  Oil  is  a  liniment  that  is  supposed  to 
increase  the  pleasant  sensations  which  we  re- 
ceive through  the  skin.  The  writer  of  this  ad- 
vertisement seems  to  have  been  able  to  imagine 
the  uncomfortable  feeling  of  sore  feet,  and  of 
the  comfort  which  his  oil  would  secure.  The 
artist  who  drew  the  sore  feet  (No.  10)  surely 
could  appreciate  the  situation  in  a  striking 
manner.  The  artist  does  not  depict  and  the 
author  does  not  describe  what  he  cannot 
imagine. 

Omega  Oil  is  not  only  a  thing  which  can  be 
applied  to  and  felt  by  the  skin,  but  it  is  also  a 
thing  that  can  be  seen  and  smelt.  To  many 
it  might  seem  a  little  thing  that  Omega  Oil  is 

223 
\  V 


THE    THEORY    OF    ADVERTISING 


green,     but     that     single     advertisement,     "It's 
Green"  (No.  n),  has  done  a  great  deal  to  help 

Ome^a  Oil 


For  sore  FEET 


The  average  mart  weighs  about  140 
pounds  and  the  average  woman  about 
<20. 

If  you  want  to  realize  how  heavy  that 
is,  pick  up  something  about  those  weights 
ana  see  now  long  your  hands  and  arms 
can  bear  the  strain 

If  you  can  stand  it  a  full  minute,  you 
are  doing  remarkably  well. 

Did  you  ever  stop  and  think  that  your 
feet  hold  up  th»t  big  weight  for  hours  at 
a  time  every  day  <* 

That  is  why  your  feet  are  sore  and 
tiredjit  ni^ht. 

Tnai  is  why  they  ache.  itch,  burn  and 
swell 


A  foot-bath  before  retiring  is  helpful. 
but  it  does  not  go  far  enough 

The  strained,  tired-out  muscles  and 
ligaments  call  for  something  strengthening, 
just  as  your  stomach  calls  lor  food. 

The  kind  of  strength  needed  for  sore. 
tired  feet  is  the  kind  of  strength  to  be 
found  in  Omega  Oil. 

Give  your  feet  a  good  bathing  in  warn) 
water,  and  get  all  the  impurities  out  of  the 
pores.  Then  rub  the  feet  thoroughly  with 


will  go  in  through  the  clean 
open  pores,  and  strengthen  and  comfort 
your  feet  in  a  manner  that  will  astonish 
vou 


j  my  one  without  any  si;n  c 


Omega  Oil  it  food  for  cvrr 


Wo.  10 

the  readers  to  form  a  distinct  image  of  the  lini- 
ment. The  man  who  cares  but  little  for  odors 
would  not  have  taken  so  much  space  to  say 

224 


APPLICATION  OF  MENTAL  IMAGERY 

that  it   "smells  nice"   (No.  12).     In  these  three 
advertisements  and  others  like  them  the  adver- 

It's  Green 


One  pcculiar  thin^ about 

Omega  Oil  is  its  green 
color.  Some  people  think  it  is  colored  green  to  make  it 
look  nice,  but  that  is  not  so.  Omega  Oil  is  green  because 
Nature  makes  it  green  It  contains  a  powerful  green 
herb  that  gives  it  its  color,  and  it  is  this  same  herb  that 
Stops  pain  in  peopled  bodies.  -  There  are  plenty  of  white, 
brown  and  yellow  liniments,  but  there  is  only  one  Omega 
Oil,  and 'it  is  green  Tlvere  is  nothing  like  Omega  Oil 
for  curing  pain,  just  as  there  is  nothing  like  the  sun  For 
making  rcsl  daylight.  m 

No.  ii 

tiser  of  Omega  Oil  has  shown  his  appreciation  of 
the  human  mind  to  which  he  has  been  appeal- 
ing. It  may ,  however,  be  questionable  whether 
such  minor  considerations  for  liniment  as  color 

22=; 


THE     THEORY    OF    ADVERTISING 

and  odor  should  receive  so  much  emphasis  as  is 
given  them  here. 

As  was  shown  in  the  preceding  chapter,  many 
people  are  deficient  in  certain  forms  of  imagery. 

Most    people    can    imagine    with 

Deficient        some  degree    of    satisfaction    how 

Imagination     things  look.     Not   quite  so  many 

can  imagine  how  things  sound 
or  feel.  Very  many  have  difficulty  in  im- 
agining how  things  taste  and  smell.  This 
would  be  sufficient  ground  for  appealing  espe- 
cially to  visual  images  if  the  commodity  was 
primarily  a  thing  of  sight.  When  the  objects 
advertised  are  things  primarily  perceived  by 
other  senses  than  the  eye,  the  greatest  care 
should  be  taken  to  awaken  those  more  difficult 
images,  i.  e.,  those  of  sound,  touch,  taste,  smell, 
etc.  The  man  who  is  blind  and  deaf  is  greatly 
handicapped.  He  cannot  perceive  color  or  hear 
sound,  and  (if  always  blind  and  deaf)  cannot 
imagine  sights  and  sounds.  The  sense  organs 
have  been  called  the  windows  of  the  soul.  The 
more  sensations  we  receive  from  an  object  the 
better  we  know  it.  The  function  of  the  nervous 
system  is  to  make  us  aware  of  the  sights,  sounds, 
feelings,  tastes,  etc.,  of  the  objects  in  our  environ- 
ment. The  nervous  system  which  does  not 
respond  to  sound  or  to  any  other  sensible  quali- 
ties is  defective.  Advertisements  are  sometimes 
spoken  of  as  the  nervous  system  of  the  business 

226 


APPLICATION  OF  MENTAL  IMAGERY 


world.  That  advertisement  of  musical  instru- 
ments which  contains  nothing  to  awaken  images 

Smells  Nice 

Omega 
Oil 

You  can  tell   by  the 
smell  of  Omega   Oil 
that  h  is  different 
from  any  other  lini- 
ment you  ever  saw. 
It  has  a  peculiar 
and  pleasant  odor. 
Besides  being  the 
best  remedy  in  tho 
world  for  stopping 
pains,  it  is  also 
the  nicest  to  use. 
It  is  not  made  of 
turpentine  or  ammo- 
nia, but  the  body  of 
it  is  a  pure  vegeta- 
ble oil.     Into  this 
oil  is   put  four  other 
ingredients,  one  of 
which  is,  a  green 
herb  that  stops  pain 
a  good  deal  on  the 
same  principle  that 
a  puff  of  wind  blow* 
out  a  lamp,  or  '"ater 
quenches  a  fire. 

Oaxg*  OU  i»  good  lor  everything  a  liniment  ought  to  b*  «ood  Jot. 

No.  12 

of  sounds  is  a  defective  advertisement.  That 
advertisement  of  foods  which  awakens  no  images 
of  taste  is  a  defective  advertisement.  As  our 

227 


THE    THEORY    OF    ADVERTISING 

nervous  system  is  arranged  to  give  us  all  the 
possible  sensations  from  every  object,  so  the 
advertisement  which  is  comparable  to  the  ner- 
vous system  must  awaken  in  the  reader  as  many 
different  kinds  of  images  as  the  object  itself  can 
excite. 

It  might  be  well  for  a  young  man  who^xpects 
to  make  a  profession  of  writing  advertisements 
to  make  a  test  of  his  own  mental  imagery.  If 
he  finds  that  he  is  peculiarly  weak  in  visual  im- 
agery he  should  seek  employment  with  firm 
that  handles  goods  other  than  those  which  are 
particularly  objects  of  sight,  e.g.,  pictures.  The 
man  who  cannot  imagine  how  a  musical  instru- 
ment sounds  should  hesitate  to  write  the  adver- 
tisements of  a  musical  house.  The  man  who 
cannot  imagine  how  foods  taste  will  be  greatly 
handicapped  in  attempting  to  write  advertise- 
ments for  food  products.  Forms  of  mental 
imagery  may,  to  a  limited  extent,  be  cultivated, 
and,  by  giving  special  attention  to  the  subject, 
one  with  a  weak  form  of  imagery  may  greatly 
improve  upon  his  former  efforts,  in  which  he  fol- 
lowed out  his  natural  bent  without  considering 
the  forms  of  mental  images  which  could  be  ap- 
pealed to  by  his  particular  class  of  goods. 


228 


XV 
CONCLUSION 


IN  the  first  chapter  of  this  volume  it  was 
asserted  that  there  should  be  a  theoretical  basis 
for  evL.y  important  practical  undertaking;  that 
the  leading  advertisers  were  asking  for  some 
fundamental  principles  upon  which  a  rational 
theory  of  advertising  could  be  constructed;  and 
that  psychology  alone  seemed  able  to  furnish 
such  principles.  In  the  succeeding  chapters 
certain  well-established  facts  of  psychology  were 
discussed  and  an  attempt  was  made  to  show 
the  bearing  of  such  psychological  facts  upon  the 
work  of  the  practical  advertiser.  To  appreciate 
their  importance  it  is  but  necessary  to  recall  to 
mind  some  of  the  more  important  features  which 
were  presented  in  each  of  these  chapters,  and 
to  review  them  rapidly  one  after  the  other. 

One  of  the  greatest  problems  of  the  advertiser 
is  how  to  attract  the  attention  of  possible  cus- 
tomers. The  second  chapter  presents  six  funda- 
mental rules  for  attracting  attention,  and  shows 
how  they  may  be  applied  in  the  preparation  of 
"  copy  "  and  in  the  placing  of  advertisements. 

Naturally,  every  advertiser  seeks  to  get  his 
particular  brand  or  "  make  "  of  goods  firmly 
associated  with  the  general  class  of  goods  of  which 
they  are  a  part.  Thus  one  firm  which  manu- 

229 


THE    THEORY     OF     ADVERTISING 

factures  photographical  apparatus  has  attempted 
to  get  the  public  to  associate  the  idea  of  portable 
cameras  with  the  name  -of  its  own  make  of  port- 
able camera  (the  "  Kodak  ")  so  iirmly  that  they 
should  think  of  this  name  whenever  they  think 
of  portable  cameras.  The  third  chapter  gives 
the  accepted  psychological  laws  for  the  forming 
of  such  associations,  and  illustrates  their  applica- 
tion in  forming  associations  in  the  minds  of  those 
to  whom  certain  advertisements  were  intended 
to  appeal. 

Every  advertiser  is  searching  for  the  easiest 
method  of  securing  the  desired  action  on  the 
part  of  the  public.  In  Chapters  IV,  V,  and  VI 
this  question  has  been  discussed  and  methods 
suggested  for  securing  such  action  with  the  least 
possible  resistance.  Advertisements  have  been 
reproduced  which  were  constructed  according 
to  these  methods  and  which  have  met  with 
unusual  success. 

The  advertiser  must  consider  the  relative  value 
of  different  media,  of  different  "  make-ups,"  and 
of  different  styles  of  illustration.  The  seventh 
chapter  presented  some  important  principles 
bearing  upon  these  questions,  and  showed  repro- 
ductions of  advertisements  which  were  weak- 
ened by  disregarding  these  principles. 

It  is  frequently  desirable  to  test  an  advertise- 
ment in  some  more  satisfactory  manner  than 
is  possible  by  means  of  any  "  keying  "  device 

230 


CONCLUSION 


yet  discovered.  In  the  eighth  chapter  has  been 
shown  how  certain  features  of  an  advertisement 
may  be  tested  accurately  without  delay  or  ex- 
pense. This  chapter  presents  and  illustrates  the 
scientific  experimental  method  of  investigation. 

The  success  of  an  advertisement  depends, 
among  other  things,  upon  the  wise  choice  of 
type,  illustrations,  and  other  symbols.  Chapter 
IX  presented  some  fundamental  considerations 
on  such  choice  and  illustrated  these  principles 
by  means  of  reproductions  of  good  and  of  poor 
advertisements. 

Most  successful  advertisement  writers  have 
discovered,  after  costly  experience,  that  there  are 
certain  things  which  it  is  unwise  to  attempt. 
Of  these  things  one  is  to  attempt  to  move  the 
mind  of  the  public  suddenly ;  another  is  to  attempt 
to  crowd  many  things  into  a  single  advertise- 
ment; and  another  is  to  describe  goods  in  tech- 
nical terms,  or  terms  that  are  not  understood  by 
many  who  might  be  induced  to  become  pur- 
chasers. In  Chapter  X  was  shown  the  necessity 
for  a  prolonged  advertising  campaign;  for  con- 
centration; and  for  an  appreciative  acquaintance 
with  the  public  to  which  the  appeal  is  made  as 
well  as  the  folly  of  talking  over  the  head  of  the 
average  customer. 

The  inexperienced  writer  is  liable  to  make  his 
advertisement  unclear  and  ambiguous  at  certain 
points.  Chapters  XI  and  XII  have  shown  some 

231 


THE    THEORY    OF     ADVERTISING 

of  the  causes  for  such  mistakes  as  well  as  the  need 
for  methods  of  avoiding  them.  Numerous  illus- 
trations show  some  of  the  typical  illusions  with 
which  the  advertiser  should  be  familiar. 

In  influencing  the  mind  of  another  it  is  of 
importance  to  know  in  what  terms  he  is  think- 
ing, so  that  the  construction  of  the  argument 
may  be  best  adapted  to  his  particular  mental 
processes,  for  in  this  way  he  can  be  most  easily 
influenced.  This  is  a  point  to  which  the  aver- 
age advertiser  gives  little  or  no  heed,  as  is  shown 
by  an  examination  of  current  advertisements. 
Chapter  XIII  has  presented  the  subject  of  the 
terms  in  which  we  think  under  the  general  head- 
ing of  Mental  Imagery.  Continuing  this  line  of 
thought,  Chapter  XIV  has  shown  how  the  ad- 
vertiser may  profitably  make  use  of  this  knowl- 
edge in  choosing  the  line  of  argument  which  will 
best  describe  his  commodity  and  which  will  most 
easily  influence  his  customers. 

Thus  it  will  be  seen  that  in  each  of  the  pre- 
ceding chapters  some  scientific  principle  has 
been  presented  and  the  necessary  relationship 
between  the  principle  and  successful  advertising 
has  been  illustrated.  With  all  this  evidence 
before  us  it  would  seem  that  we  must  admit 
that  the  practical  nature  of  psychology  in  this 
connection  has  been  demonstrated  and  that  it 
has  proved  itself  to  be  sufficient  to  meet  the 
demands  for  a  scientific  basis  for  the  theory  of 

232 


CONCLUSION 


advertising.  The  understanding  si  the 
of  possible  customers^?  \^e^as^n^TRS 
of  the  best  methods  of  presenting  the  goods* 
preparing  the  copy,  selecting  media,  and  placing 
the  advertisement  to  influence  most  effectively 
the  minds  of  these  same  persons  all  this  prac- 
tical ability  is  conditioned  by  a  working  knowl- 
edge of  psychology.  The  successful  Advertiser 
mtist  be  a  psychologist.  It  may  not  be  neces- 
sary for  him  to  be  able  to  formulate  his  system 
and  he  may  never  have  studied  in  any  school  or 
under  any  instructor  other  than  his  practical  exper- 
ience. No  matter  how  he  acquires  his  knowledge 
of  psychology,  he  must,  at  least,  possess  it. 

If  this  little  book  shall  assist  *  business  men 
to  any  extent  in  acquiring  this  necessary  knowl- 
edge, or  shall  prove  an  incentive  to  further 
researches  which  shall  throw  more  light  upon 
the  true  principles  of  a  most  important  part  of 
all  modern  business,  the  author  feels  that  it 
will  have  accomplished  its  mission  by  adding 
its  mite  to  the  spread  of  science  and  to  the 
advancement  of  industry. 


or  TH 
(    UNIVERSITY    ) 

or 


233 


INDEX 


Action,  analysis  of,  65;  its  relation  to  direct  commands,  74; 
suggested  by  return  coupons,  48$,  85. 

Esthetic  feelings,  consideration  of  the,  in  advertisements,  29. 

American  Lead  Pencil  Co.,  24. 

Apperception,  Chapter  X,  147$;  application  of,  to  advertis- 
ing, 159;  application  of  illusions  of.  to  advertising,  ij6ff: 
aspects  of,  149;  basis  of,  in  past  experiences,  150;  com- 
pass of,  148;  description  of,  149;  degrees  of,  illustrated, 
151;  elements  in,  148;  growth  of  "knowledge  through, 
152;  illusions  of,  Chapter  XII,  175^,  see  Illusions;  prin- 
ciples involved  in  illusions  of,  188;  its  relation  to  atten- 
tion, 160;  its  relation  to  association  of  ideas,  147. 

Armour's  Soap,  iSoff,  190. 

Association  of  ideas,  Chapter  III,  34$;  application  of  laws  of, 
to  advertising,  41  ff;  its  dependence  on  habit,  recency, 
vividness,  39^;  an  element  in  apperception,  148;  gen- 
eral law  of,  38;  illustrated,  37,  42^;  its  relation  to  per- 
ception, 36 ff;  its  relation  to  habit,  39$;  its  relation 
to  memory,  148;  specific  laws  of,  39$. 

Astrology,  117. 

Attention,  Chapter  II,  6ff;  commands,  66,  74;  counter  attrac- 
tions to,  in  advertisements,  12;  coupons  and,  81-86;  an 
element  in  apperception,  148;  movement  and,  74;  prin- 
ciples of  attention- value,  9$:  (i)  Absence  of  counter 
attractions,  9;  (2)  Intensity  of  sensation,  2,  12;  (3) 
Contrasts,  15;  (4)  Ease  of  comprehension,  18;  (5)  Rep- 
etition, 24;  (6)  Intensity  of  feeling  aroused,  29;  place  of 
illustration  in  attracting,  i^off;  its  relation  to  action 
and  suggestion,  75^;  value  of  different  colors  in  at- 
tracting, 14;  value  of  different-sized  type  in  attracting, 
14;  voluntary  and  involuntary,  8,  32;  width  of,  6. 

Baldwin,  J.  Mark,  61. 

Ballot  advertisement  and  coupon,  93. 

Bernheim,  H  ,  61. 

Borders  in  coupon  advertisements,  82  ff 

Brain,  human,  ambiguous  illustration  of,  181. 

Browning,  Robert,  205. 

23  S 


THE     THEORY     OF    A"D  VERTISI NG 

Burlington  Route,  n,  17,  45. 

Century  Magazine,  coupon  advertisements  in,  94. 

Clairvoyance,  not  included  in  Psychology,  116. 

Colors,  effect  of,  in  advercising,  14$;  attention  values  of  black 
on  white  background  and  white  on  black  background,  14; 
black,  14,  17,  171;  blue,  171;  green,  14,  171;  orange, 
171;  red,  14,  171;  white,  14,  171;  yellow,  171;  harmony 
of,  in  advertisements,  29;  irradiation,  ijoff. 

Command,  the  direct,  Chapter  V,  62$;  advantages  of  direct, 
64/7;  attention  and,  66;  examples  of,  64$;  form  of  ex- 
pression in,  68,  71,  73;  functions  of ,  to  attract  attention 
and  to  cause  immediate  action,  74$;  habit  in  relation  to, 
64;  personality  in,  73;  its  relation  to  return  coupons, 
85;  suggestion  and,  65$,  85,  91. 

Conception,  4. 

Confusion  in  advertisement,  12,  ijjff,  192. 

Conklin  Pen  Co.,.  187  ft. 

Contrast,  its  attention  value  in  coupons,  Sift. 

Contrasts,  harmonious  vs.  unharmonious,  17. 

Counter  attractions  to  attention  in  advertisements,  12. 

Coupons,  the    psychological    value  of   return,  Chapter    VI, 

79ff- 

Coupon  return,  as  keying  device,  80;  attention  value  of, 
8 iff;  ballot  form  of,  92$;  a  cause  of  definite  and  spe- 
cific action,  58;  evolution  of,  88;  its  relation  to  direct 
commands,  85;  suggestive  of  action,  91;  three-cornered, 
82 ;  value  of  position  of,  88$. 

Cream  of  Wheat,  28. 

Crystal  gazing,  116. 

Delineator,  The,  an  example  of  the  value  of  direct  command, 
78. 

Dexter  and  Garlack,  151. 

Dickens,  Charles,  215. 

Difficulties  in  advertising,  see  Hindrances. 

Direct  command,  see  Command 

Discrimination,  4. 

Douglas  Shoe,  39. 

Emotion,  4,  29. 

Everybody's  Magazine,  177. 

236 


INDEX 


Expense  in  advertising,  2. 

Experiment,  psychological,  Chapter  VIII,  n6/J;  nature  of, 
118;  standard  conditions  in,  118. 

Experiments,  list  of:  (i)  black  and  white  type,  39,  138;  (2) 
effects  of  different  colors,  14;  (3)  fr°g-  I5ff'^  U)  geomet- 
rical figures,  82$;  (5)  letters,  9$;  (6)  numbers,  82;  (7) 
railroad  time  tables,  119$;  (8)  test  made  with  adver- 
tisements in  a  current  magazine,  157;  (9)  type  faces, 
119$,  138$;  (10)  width  of  attention,  7 

Feeling,  an  element  in  apperception,  148;  an  element  in  at- 
tention, 29;  its  relation  to  memory,  148. 

Form,  harmony  of,  in  advertisements,  29;  of  expression,  68, 

7i.  73- 

Fortune  telling,  116. 

Franklin  Mills  Co.,  26,  76-77 

Fusion,  Chapter  VII,  96$;  environment  as  an  element  in, 
100$;  illustration  of,  96 ff;  law  of,  98;  its  relation  to 
perception  of  parts  and  entireties,  99;  its  relation  to 
advertising,  102. 

Garlack,  Dexter  and,  151. 

Ginsing,  Dist.  &  Chemical  Co.,  108. 

Gold  Dust  Twins,  69,  72. 

Great  Western  Cereal  Co.,  113. 

Habit,  as  a  factor  in  association,  39$;  its  relation  to  sugges- 
tion and  commands,  64. 

Hindrances  to  effective  advertising:  (i)  Confusions,  12,  177, 
192;  (2)  Lack  of  mental  imagery,  2ioff;  (3)  Obtrusive 
and  repulsive  advertisements,  30,  39;  (4)  Poor  me- 
diums, 104;  (5)  Poor  names  and  trade  marks,  19. 

Hugo,  Victor,  204. 

Huxley,  Thomas  H.,  64. 

Hypnosis,  see  Hypnotism. 

Hypnotism,  53,  6off,  117;  relation  to  suggestion,  63. 

Ideas,  perception  and,  124,  132$;  suggestion  and,  S2ff- 

Illusions,  advantages  of,  172$;  application  of,  to  advertising, 
173$,  175$,  189;  of  apperception,  Chapter  XII,  175$; 
cause  of  illusions  of  apperception  in  ads,  188$;  explana- 
tion of,  164  ff;  illustrations  of,  163$;  necessitv  of  elimi- 
nation of,  in  advertisements,  192;  optical,  163$;  of  per- 
237 


THE    THEORY    OF   ADVERTISING 


ception,  Chapter  XI,  162$;  principles  involved  in, 
a  source  of  confusion  in  advertisements,    175. 

Illustration,  function  of,  140^;  its  relation  to  perception, 
1  40;  relevant  and  irrelevant,  141$;  use  of,  for  public,  142. 

Imagery,  see  Mental  Imagery. 

Imagination,  deficiency  of,  227. 

Inhibition,  48,  51,  59,  66. 

Instinct,  4. 

Irradiation,  17  off. 

Irving,  Washington,  225. 

Ivory  Soap,  181,  190. 

James,  William,  197    200. 

Johnson's  Universal  Cyclopedia,  61. 

Laboratory,  apparatus  of  a  psychological,  118;  description 
of  a  psychological,  1  16  ;  first  psychological,  1  16  ;  functions 
of  a  psychological,  117. 

La  Fontaine,  198. 

Language,  picture  and  written,  136. 

Lettering,  simple  vs.  complex,  19. 

London  Times,  54. 

Mabie,  Todd  &  Bard,  109. 

Magnetism,  animal,  116. 

Mahin's  Magazine,  78,  94. 

Makeup,  attention  value  of  contrasts  in,  17;  influence  of 
advertisements  on,  105$. 

McClure's  Magazine,  84,  88,  94. 

Memory,  148. 

Mental  Imagery,  advertisements  defective  in,  227;  applica- 
tion of,  to  advertising,  201$;  auditory,  200  ;  classes  of,  194; 
cultivation  of,  228;  deficiency  in,  220/7,  228;  examples 
of,  194^;  hindrance  to  good  advertising,  through  de- 
ficiency in,  2ioff;  literature  and,  204/7;  of  movement, 
taste,  touch,  203—220;  practical  application  of,  Chapter 
XIV,  208/7;  personal  differences  in,  Chapter  XIII,  194  #; 
its  relation  to  perception,  196$;  spelling  and,  208$; 
visual,  198/7- 

Mershong  and  Morley,  177,  179,  190. 

Mesmerism,  116. 

Miami  Cycle  Mfg.  Company,  112. 

238 


INDEX 


Mind,  differences  in,  34;  lawlessness  of,  34;  reading,  48;  unity 
of,  147$. 

Moll,  Albert,  61. 

Movement  and  attention,  74. 

Munsing  Underwear,  177. 

Munsey's  Magazine,  94. 

Murphy  Varnish  Co.,  10,  21. 

Nation,  The,  61. 

Nervous  system  described,  130. 

New  York  Herald,  8 1,  83. 

North  Western  Knitting  Co.,  189. 

Oneiromancy,  61. 

Oneita  Underwear,  176^,  i&gff. 

Orangeine,  19. 

Outdoor  advertising,  76. 

Pears'  Soap,  68 

Perception,  Chapter  IX,  130^;  definition  of,  131;  distin- 
guished from  apperception,  132,  133,  148;  distinguished 
from  sensation,  133,  136;  distinguished  from  ideas,  124, 
134$;  illusions  of,  Chapter  XI,  162^;  physical  basis  of, 
130;  parts  and  entireties  in  relation  to  fusion,  99;  sensa- 
tion and,  142,  146;  symbols  and,  134. 

Personality,  an  element  in  commands  in  advertisements,  73$. 

Petoskey  Rug  Mfg.  Co.,  no. 

Pope,  quotation  from,  50. 

Powell,  69. 

Printer's  Ink,  78. 

Prodigy,  117. 

Prudential  Insurance  Co.,  31. 

Psychology,  definition  of,  3. 

Purina  Mills,  19$,  172. 

Quacks,  61. 

Quaker  Oats,  114. 

Reason,  4. 

Repetition,  attention  value  of,  24;  basis  of  law  of  association, 
39;  extent  of,  in  advertisements,  25;  problems  of,  to 
advertisers,  24. 

Robinson  Bros.,  175,  189. 

Scribner's  Magazine,  94. 

239 


THE    THEORY    OF    ADVERTISING 

Scott,  Sir  Walter,  205. 

Sensation,  as  an  element  in  apperception,  148;  perception 
and,  distinguished,  132/7,  142,  146;  pure,  132;  relation 
to  memory,  148. 

Sidis,  56 

Sleight,  Dr.,  106. 

Slocumb,  Dr.,  13,  17. 

Spiritism,  116. 

Suggestibility  in  animals,  55. 

Suggestion,  Chapter  IV,  47^;  abnormalities  in,  57$;  actions, 
voluntary  and  involuntary  in  relation  to,  52$;  applica- 
tion of,  to  advertising,  61;  attention  in  relation  to,  J$ff: 
commands  and,  6$ff,  82,  91;  coupons  and,  85,  91;  exam- 
ples of,  47/7;  examples  of  social,  55;  explained,  47; 
explanation  of  abnormalities  of,  in  social  suggestion,  58^; 
habit  in  relation  to,  64;  ideas  and,  52^;  law  of,  47. 

Symbols,  dependence  of  advertisers  on,  137;  place  of,  in  per- 
ception, 134/7;  without  meaning,  142;  words  aSj  136, 

Telepathy,  116. 

Tennyson,  Alfred,  205 

Test,  see  Experiment. 

Type,  attention  value  of  different  sized,  14;  black  vs.  white, 
138;  importance  of  selection  of ,  128/7. 

Van  Dyke,  73. 

Walton,  W.  M.,  in. 

Wanamaker,  John,  8 1,  83*  84. 

Wheatlet,  26. 

White  Star  Coffee,  23. 

Whitman's  Chocolates,  156$. 

Will,  an  element  in  apperception,  148. 

Winter's  Grocery,  175/7,  189. 

Witchcraft,  117. 

Woodley,  J.  C.,  94. 

Wundt,  Professor,  116. 


14  DAY  USE 

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